The purpose of this work was to evaluate compost (and related industry) stability tests given recent large-scale changes to feedstock, processing techniques and compost market requirements. Five stability tests (ORG0020, DR4, Dewar self-heating, oxygen update rate (OUR) and static respiration) were evaluated on composts from ten in-vessel composting sites. Spearman rank correlation coefficients were strong for the ORG0020, OUR and DR4 (both CO2 and O2 measurement), however, OUR results required data extrapolation for highly active compost samples. By comparison the Dewar self-heating and static respiration tests had weaker correlations, in part the result of under reporting highly active, low pH samples. The findings suggest that despite differences in pre-incubation period both dynamic respiration tests (ORG0020 and DR4) are best suited to deal with the wide range of compost stabilities found.

This report provides a critical review of available evidence as to how effectively the various categories and configurations of biofilter reduce bioaerosol and odour emissions from composting facilities.

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SUMMARY The emergence and development of a coherent and defined community composting sector, as with the commercial composting sector, is relatively new. There is some anecdotal and funding support evidence for the growth in, and diversity of, community composting, but there is very little comprehensive data that draws together the activities of the sector as a whole. This paper starts to address that gap by presenting a summary from a national survey on the nature of the community composting sector and shows that it comprises groups and organisations involved in a diverse range of activities. It also presents findings from participatory workshops with community composting groups and their stakeholders exploring the extent to which projects contribute to individual and community change.

Partnership working is becoming popular as a strategic and operational approach to developing sustainable waste management. However, the evidence base to support partnership working is poor and the impact and potential of partnerships in the waste sector has not been analysed and assessed. This paper starts to address the gap in knowledge. It focuses on partnership working for the management of municipal waste, and identifies and characterises a range of different types including partnerships between local authorities and between local authorities and their service providers. Five models of partnerships are presented and illustrated through case studies. The paper is novel in applying an analytical framework for partnership working developed in healthcare [Hudson B, Hardy B. What is ‘successful’ partnership and how can it be measured? In: Glendinning C, Powell M, Rummery K, editors. Partnerships, New labour and the governance of welfare. Bristol: The Policy Press; 2002] to the public service delivery of waste and recycling services. The theoretical concepts of synergy and governance are used to inform this analysis and discuss the implications arising from emerging trends. Partnerships have defined members, a written understanding, a shared vision and a joint commitment to work together towards common objectives. Findings suggest successful partnerships have developed over the long-term, a partnership lifecycle exists where motivations, characteristics and activities change over time. Current partnerships appear to be primarily concerned with meeting targets and delivering efficiencies, which can lead towards more centralised decision making and aggregated services. We suggest that policy rhetoric promoting partnerships for delivering sustainable resource management and as a local governance mechanism is not borne out in practice and should be treated with caution.

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of thermophilic pre-composting followed by vermicomposting on compost characteristics compared with thermophilic pre-composting and windrow composting. Source segregated household waste was thermophilically composted (14days) to sanitise the waste. Organic matter and nitrogen losses were 9% and 5% respectively. The waste was then matured (84days) using either vermicomposting beds (n=5) or composting windrows (n=5). At the end of the 98days processing there was a significantly greater mass (P<0.01) of fine particles (<10mm) in the vermicomposting beds (65.3% m:m) compared with the compost windrows (36.9% m:m) suggesting enhanced fragmentation of the paper-based feedstock components by the earthworms. When screened, the windrow compost (<10mm) contained significantly higher (P<0.01) concentrations of total N, P and K and total Cu (P<0.01), Pb (P<0.001), Ni (P<0.05) and Cd (P<0.01). Significantly higher levels of electrical conductivity (EC) 3.08mS.cm (P<0.001) and water-soluble K 6366mgkg−1 (P<0.01) were recorded for the windrow compost compared with the vermicompost (1.78mS.cm; 3328mgkg−1). The vermicompost NO3 concentration (2660mgkg−1) was significantly higher (P<0.05) than for the windrow compost (1531mgkg−1). In a programme of plant response tests based on B.S.I. PAS 100 (2005), the screened (<10mm) vermicompost and windrow compost performed comparably when formulated into growing media based on equalising EC levels.

Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are included in the six greenhouse gases listed in the Kyoto protocol that require emission reduction. To meet reduced emission targets, governments need to first quantify their contribution to global warming. Composting has been identified as an important source of CH4 and N2O. With increasing divergence of biodegradable waste from landfill into the composting sector, it is important to quantify emissions of CH4 and N2O from all forms of composting and from all stages. This study focuses on the final phase of a two stage composting process and compares the generation and emission of CH4 and N2O associated with two differing composting methods: mechanically turned windrow and vermicomposting. The first stage was in-vessel pre-treatment. Source-segregated household waste was first pre-composted for seven days using an in-vessel system. The second stage of composting involved forming half of the pre-composted material into a windrow and applying half to vermicomposting beds. The duration of this stage was 85 days and CH4 and N2O emissions were monitored throughout for both systems. Waste samples were regularly subjected to respirometry analysis and both processes were found to be equally effective at stabilising the organic matter content. The mechanically turned windrow system was characterised by emissions of CH4 and to a much lesser extent N2O. However, the vermicomposting system emitted significant fluxes of N2O and only trace amounts of CH4. In-vessel pre-treatment removed considerable amounts of available C and N prior to the second stage of composting. This had the effect of reducing emissions of CH4 and N2O from the second stage compared to emissions from fresh waste found in other studies. The characteristics of each of the two composting processes are discussed in detail. Very different mechanisms for emission of CH4 and N2O are proposed for each system. For the windrow system, development of anaerobic zones were thought to be responsible for CH4 release. High N2O emission rates from vermicomposting were ascribed to strongly nitrifying conditions in the processing beds combined with the presence of de-nitrifying bacteria within the worm gut.

Earthworms Allolobophora chlorotica and Aporrectodea longa were inoculated into Calvert landfill site in spring 1992, in conjunction with the planting of two tree species Alnus glutinosa and Acer pseudoplatanus. Monitoring has taken place over a period of 11 years. Sampling in 2003 revealed that earthworm distribution no longer equated to the inoculation treatments; the worms had spread extensively. The presence of A. glutinosa had a significant effect(p < 0(.)01) on earthworm number (mean density 198 m(-2)) and biomass (34 g m(-2)) compared to plots where A. pseudoplatanus had been planted and subsequently died (mean density 118 m(-2); biomass 21 g m(-2)). Results suggest that tree presence may be critical to earthworm community development.In 2002, the spread of A. chlorotica from the original points of inoculation had reached. 60 m with the highest recorded population density at 108 m(-2) with a mass of 18(.)6 g m(-2). A. longa was recorded at a distance of 132 m from the nearest point of inoculation with the highest recorded population density at 70 m(-2) with a mass of 49(.)3 g m(-2), 10 m from the original inoculation grid. Other species recorded (and % of total) were Aporrectodea rosea (0(.)9) Lumbricus castaneus (7(.)4), Eiseniella tetraedra (21(.)5) and Lumbricus rubellus (4(.)5). The two inoculated species, A. chlorotica (40(.)4) and A. longa (25(.)3), accounted for two thirds of the earthworms found on site. The highest earthworm community density was, 213 m(-2) with a mass of 73(.)9 g m(-2) at 10 m from original point of inoculation.In 1999, treatments of surface organic matter (OM), in the form of composted green waste, and rotavation were applied to non-replicated plots of 50 m(2) with the effects on earthworm distribution and abundance recorded in 2002. Addition of OM alone led to an increase in number and mass (331 m(-2); 95 g m(-2)) compared to the control (233 m(-2); 51 g m(-2)), while rotavation alone (111 m(-2); 36 g m(-2)) had a detrimental effect over the given time period.This long-term monitoring programme has demonstrated the development of sustainable earthworm communities on a landfill site. Natural nutrient accumulation and addition of OM on or into the soil-forming material appeared to assist this process. This work may help to inform post-capping treatment at similar landfill sites. Copyright (C) 2004 John Wiley Sons, Ltd.

A large-scale, outdoor vermicomposting system was monitored for 80 weeks. Earthworm populations were recorded for 60 weeks in unheated beds operating at ambient temperatures (34 weeks at 6.3 +/- 2.3 degreesC) and in heated beds controlled at 13.7 +/- 0.8 degreesC for 34 weeks. Both blocks of beds were at ambient temperatures for the remaining 26 weeks. Earthworm biomass and the numbers of hatchlings and cocoons produced for the heated beds were found to be significantly greater than for the unheated beds.Nitrous oxide fluxes in winter (week 60) were 3.2 +/- 0.3 mg m(-2) h(-1) (unheated beds), 1.8 +/- 0.3 mg m(-2) h(-1) (heated beds), and these were significantly different to the control beds (0.1 +/- 0.0 mg m(-2) h(-1)). Emissions during summer (week 80) were 20.1 +/- 3.0 mg m(-2) h(-1) (unheated beds), 21.3 +/- 2.8 mg m(-2) h(-1) (heated beds) and these were significantly different to the control beds 3.9 +/- 1.7 mg m(-2) h(-1). No relationship between earthworm density and nitrous oxide flux was found for the large-scale beds. However, in a subsequent laboratory experiment, nitrous oxide emissions were positively correlated with earthworm density (R-2 = 0.76).Maintaining moderate bed temperatures for vermicomposting systems during low ambient temperatures can significantly increase earthworm density. Vermicomposting systems have the capacity to emit high levels of nitrous oxide and earthworms appear to be primarily responsible for this. The environmental impact from nitrous oxide emissions appears to be comparable to other waste processing operations. Further research is required into ways of minimising emissions especially from vermicomposting systems operating at high earthworm densities and high waste processing rates.

Composting is an important element in sustainable waste management for the UK and could potentially have a vital role to play in meeting the obligations of the Landfill Directive. This paper evaluates the current state of the composting industry in the UK using the survey data from 1999 and compares its performance and profile with other countries in Europe. The UK industry profile shows that most waste (92%) is managed by relatively small, centralised sites which typically employ unsophisticated technology. These centralised sites also tend to compost green (garden) waste almost exclusively and this material is usually obtained from collection at civic amenity sites. In relation to the longer-term requirements of the Landfill Directive, it would appear that continued reliance on composting green waste would not be sufficient to meet the targets. Major structural changes will be needed if the industry is to meet the challenges ahead and kerbside collection and composting of both kitchen and green waste will probably have an important role to play. The results from the 1999 survey of composting also suggest that there is a renewed interest in using mechanical and biological treatment to process municipal solid waste directly. After several years of sustained growth, it is clear that the UK composting industry is at a crucial stage in its development. It is the opinion of the authors that the experience of the more advanced composting countries in Europe should be used as a model for the continued development of the UK industry in order to deliver sustainable waste management in the longer term.

Trials evaluating the processing of a waste paper sludge (WPS) using a traditional windrow-composting system, and a modular vermicomposting unit (VCU) system are described. The VCU system utilized the earthworm Dendrobaena veneta at near carrying capacity. Both composting processes produced good levels of stabilization in WPS after 8 weeks. Windrow-composting achieved a 70.4% reduction in volatile solids, significantly more than the VCU system, which achieved a 52.7% reduction (p < 0.01). This was reflected in total-fibre contents of 37.2% for windrow-composted WPS, significantly lower than 43.8% observed for VCU-composted WPS (p < 0.05). A total nitrogen loss of 41.3% in the VCU-composted WPS was significantly lower than the 70% loss observed for windrow-composted WPS (p < 0.05). VCU-composted WPS resulted in a product much higher in water-soluble (available) nutrients, especially nitrate (p < 0.001). A mean increase in earthworm biomass of 36.6%, with a mean mortality of 22.3%, occurred in the VCU system, indicating the high nutritional value of WPS for D. veneta cultivation. Radish plant growth trials using the final, matured, windrow-composted WPS showed significantly higher levels of plant growth than for VCU-composted WPS (p < 0.05), although plant growth increased significantly when VCU-composted WPS was diluted with coir (p < 0.01). Although both composting systems proved technically suitable for processing WPS, they are clearly different processes. These differences are reflected in the unique properties of composted WPS products, the implications of which require further investigation.

Allolobophora chlorotica and Aporrectodea longa were inoculated into a clay landfill site cap at Calvert, Buckinghamshire during the Spring of 1992,. Monitoring of these animals, their offspring and natural colonists of the site using a variety of methods, has occurred since then. Both inoculated species have established sustainable populations, with an index of cast-counting showing that A. longa numbers have at least doubled. The spread of this species has been steady, but slow through the compacted day cap, with worms moving up to 10 m from points of inoculation after 5 years (mean value 2.3 m). From digging and hand-sorting of samples, A. chlorotica has been shown to move comparable distances and earthworm densities overall are now at least 110 m(-2). Numbers of A. chlorotica were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in areas where both species were inoculated, compared to areas where they were inoculated in isolation. Other species found on site include Eiseniella tetraedra and Lumbricus rubellus. Although the inoculated earthworm populations appear to be expanding and flourishing, physical soil conditions have not changed significantly over the study period. The rate of amelioration of this type of material would appear to be extremely slow and introduction of earthworms can only partially meet this requirement.

Freshly-shredded green waste (yard waste) was composted for 16 weeks using a mechanically-turned windrow system. The rate of organic matter stabilisation was determined by measuring the reduction in the volatile solids content of the waste. Samples of the fresh material were also vermicomposted using Eisenia andrei (Bouché) and rates of growth and reproduction obtained which were comparable to published rates for other wastes. Vermicomposting for 8 weeks produced a material with a significantly lower volatile solids content compared to composting for a similar period (P < 0.01). A combined composting and vermicomposting system was investigated by extracting partially-composted samples from the compost windrow every 2 weeks and feeding these to E. andrei. Growth and reproduction were found to be positively correlated to the volatile solids content of the waste (P < 0.01). Vermicomposting partially composted waste (2 weeks), for a further 6 weeks, reduced volatile solids content significantly more than for composting fresh waste for 8 weeks (P < 0.001). It is concluded that E. andrei is capable of attaining good rates of growth and reproduction in fresh green waste and that vermicomposting can result in a more stable material (lower volatile solids content) compared to composting. Combining vermicomposting with existing composting operations can also accelerate stabilisation compared to composting alone. The duration of pre-composting will determine the subsequent rate of growth and reproduction of E. andrei. To ensure that the vermicomposting system operates at maximum efficiency, pre-composting should be kept to a minimum, consistent with effective sanitisation of the waste.

The introduction of earthworms into degraded or newly restored land is known to promote soil improvement. Obtaining the most appropriate species in the large numbers required can be costly and time consuming using traditional techniques. Research and development of a novel approach, the Earthworm Inoculation Unit (EIU) technique, may help to overcome this. This technique combines cultivation of selected earthworms in small soil-based units, with an effective method of direct soil introduction. Successful cultivation of deep burrowing species, e.g. Lumbricus terrestris L. and Aporrectodea longa (Ude), and shallow working species, e.g. Allolobophora chlorotica (Savigny), has been achieved by optimizing environmental factors. Accelerated rates of reproduction compared with field data have been recorded.At soil-inoculation, each EIU was found to contain all three earthworm life stages, adults, cocoons and hatchlings, promoting maximum opportunity for successful colonisation. Results from field trials suggest, that for A. longa, the EIU technique can enhance survivorship in compacted clay soils compared with a more conventional inoculation method.Earthworm inoculation, where appropriate, should become an integral component of sustainable land restoration practice. In hostile soils, often associated with reclaimed land, the EIU technique may provide a means of ensuring long term survival for earthworm populations. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

The introduction of selected earthworms into degraded or newly restored land is known to promote soil improvement. However, to collect and introduce the large numbers required for use in land restoration can be costly and time consuming. To overcome these problems, an Earthworm Inoculation Unit (EIU) technique combines cultivation of selected earthworms in soil-based units with an effective method of direct soil introduction. Cultivation of a particular deep-burrowing species was achieved through optimizing temperature, nutrition and population density. At soil inoculation, after 3 months, each 2-l EIU contained all three life stages - adults, cocoons and hatchlings - providing maximum opportunity for successful colonization. Compared with a conventional method of inoculation, the EIU technique gave rise to enhanced survivorship in a compacted clay soil during the first year after inoculation. Earthworm inoculation should become an integral component of sustainable land restoration practice and the EIU technique provides the most effective means of ensuring long-term earthworm colonization, particularly in hostile soil environments.

Experiments examining growth and reproduction of Lumbricus terrestris, by varying earthworm density at 20-degrees-C, in laboratory culture, are described. Densities up to 62 g live mass litre-1 were attained during growth experiments in 0.3 litre pots, but sexual maturity of the earthworms was not attained above 53 g live mass litre-1. From the hatchling stage minimum time to maturation was twelve weeks reaching a final density of 15 g live mass litre-1. Greatest reproductive output at 4.4 cocoons worm-1 month-1 was recorded at a density of 15 g live mass litre-1 in 0.75 litre pots with a depth of 0.076 m. Cocoon production occurred in 0.6 litre pots but high mortality was recorded above 19 g live mass litre-1. Overall the results suggest that in a large production system soil depth could be kept to a minimum but population densities ought to be maintained towards the lower end of the range 15 - 25 g live mass litre-1.

The life cycle of L. terrestris was examined under controlled environmental conditions. Cocoon and hatchling masses, growth and reproductive rates were recorded within closely defined experimental regimes. Mean cocoon and hatchling masses were 60 and 53 mg respectively and a linear relationship between the two data sets was observed. Cocoons hatched most rapidly at 20 degrees C in 70 +/- 2.9 days. Growth was significantly influenced by temperature, food type and earthworm density. Growth to maturity was most rapid at 15 degrees C (within 20 weeks) with a feed of paper pulp and an organic nitrogen supplement of yeast extract. Cocoon production was continuous throughout the year, but declined over a period of three years. A lifetime mean of 55 cocoons per individual was recorded. The complete life cycle was achieved within a period of 30 weeks. This anecique species is not particularly suited to traditional vermiculture techniques.

The benefits of earthworm inoculation in improving soil conditions are now well established. The main problem with this technique is that it is difficult to obtain large numbers of the most appropriate species at an economic price. At present, the only way of obtaining earthworms for soil improvement is from large scale field collection and this is laborious and expensive.Research at the Open University aims to overcome these problems by investigating ways of intensively producing Lumbricus terrestris. This paper identifies the key variables in the process and presents experimental evidence that L. terrestris can grow and reproduce all year round.Initial results indicate that by optimising the key variables of temperature and nutrition this species can be grown from cocoon to sexual maturity in less than half the time taken in the field. Furthermore, the rate of reproduction can be increased to twice the maximum rate reported by other researchers, even when the earthworms are kept at densities much higher than found in the field.It is concluded that continuous, intensive production of L. terrestris is possible and that this method of supplying earthworms for soil improvement has many advantages compared to field collection.

The influence of cardiopulmonary bypass on fibrinolytic activity was assessed by a sensitive clot lysis assay in eight patients undergoing coronary artery bypass operations. Fibrinolytic activity increased immediately after cardíopulmonary bypass was begun and remained elevated throughout the period of extracorporeal circulation. At the conclusion of the operative procedure, fibrinolytic activity returned to the normal range in all patients, and no subject had postoperative bleeding.