The single seed descent (SSD) method of inbreeding minimizes the amount of genetic sampling. The single-pod descent (SPD) and bulk methods (BM) produce redundant inbred lines that are descended from either the same F2 or F3 plant. However, for soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.], the SSD method requires more time to process the seed than the SPD or BM. Our experiment is the first to compare the SSD, SPD and BM by sampling the same population in the field and then evaluating the methods using molecular markers. Our objective was to determine the relative efficiency of the SSD, SPD and BM procedures. We defined unique lines as those lines that were not paired with any other line at a coefficient of similarity (Sxy) level ≥ 0.875, which was an alike-in-state criterion. The efficiency was defined as the number of unique lines developed by each procedure. We genotyped 100 F4:5 lines from each of the three genetic sampling methods, using 21 polymorphic simple sequence repeat markers. The number of unique lines was the same for all three sampling methods at the 0.05 level of Type I error. Based on our criterion, the three sampling methods are equally efficient. Our conclusions were the opposite of all other previously published reports. Each breeder will have to determine the best method for generation advancement, based on the amount of resources required to harvest and process the seed.

ABSTRACTThe genetic gain formula has been used to determine the best allocation of resources. The assumptions of this formula are that genotypes are selected based on the mean of data averaged across several locations within years. When plant breeders select genotypes after the first year of replicated yield tests, the assumptions of the genetic gain formula are violated. For this reason, information provided by the genetic gain formula is not useful for determining the optimum allocation of replicates and environments. Our objectives were to (i) develop a heritability formula that included covariances between genotype‐by‐environment (G × E) interaction effects for the same genotype evaluated in different environments; and (ii) show how these G × E covariances influence resource allocation strategies to maximize genetic gain. Our operational genetic gain formula considers genetic gain to be a correlated response between the test and target environments and allows for G × E covariances between the same genotype evaluated at two selection sites. When selection was conducted at two sites that had a small G × E component of variance and also conducted at two sites with a large G × E component of variance, the realized gain was equal in the target environments. Optimal resource allocation cannot be decided, based on the genetic gain formula.

Crop ScienceVolume 44, Issue 3 p. 1022-1023 Registration of Cultivar Registration of ‘York’ Flax J.J. Hammond, Corresponding Author J.J. Hammond James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu Dep. of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5051Corresponding author (James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu)Search for more papers by this authorJ.F. Miller, J.F. Miller USDA-ARS Fargo, NdSearch for more papers by this authorG.D. Statler, G.D. Statler Plant Pathology Dep., North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5051Search for more papers by this author J.J. Hammond, Corresponding Author J.J. Hammond James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu Dep. of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5051Corresponding author (James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu)Search for more papers by this authorJ.F. Miller, J.F. Miller USDA-ARS Fargo, NdSearch for more papers by this authorG.D. Statler, G.D. Statler Plant Pathology Dep., North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5051Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 May 2004 https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2004.1022a Registration by CSSA. Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Volume44, Issue3May–June 2004Pages 1022-1023 RelatedInformation

Crop ScienceVolume 44, Issue 3 p. 1022-1022 Registration of Cultivar Registration of ‘Nekoma’ Flax J.J. Hammond, Corresponding Author J.J. Hammond James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu Dep. of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5501Corresponding author (James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu)Search for more papers by this authorJ.F. Miller, J.F. Miller Usda-Ars Fargo, NdSearch for more papers by this authorJ.B. Rasmussen, J.B. Rasmussen Plant Pathology Dep., North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5051Search for more papers by this author J.J. Hammond, Corresponding Author J.J. Hammond James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu Dep. of Plant Sciences, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5501Corresponding author (James.hammond@ndsu.nodak.edu)Search for more papers by this authorJ.F. Miller, J.F. Miller Usda-Ars Fargo, NdSearch for more papers by this authorJ.B. Rasmussen, J.B. Rasmussen Plant Pathology Dep., North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 58105-5051Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 May 2004 https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci2004.1022Citations: 3 Registration by CSSA. Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinked InRedditWechat Citing Literature Volume44, Issue3May–June 2004Pages 1022-1022 RelatedInformation

The grain yield and quality determine much of the value of an oat ( Avena sativa L.) crop to the producer. This study investigated effects of genotype and environment on grain yield and quality. Twelve oat genotypes were grown during 3 yr at four locations in North Dakota where detailed environmental data were being collected. Grain yield, test weight, groat percentage, groat weight, and groat composition (protein, oil, β‐glucan, and starch concentrations) were evaluated. Results were subjected to analysis of variance and influences of environmental factors were evaluated by correlation analysis. Analysis of variance suggested that grain yield, groat starch, and ash concentrations were more strongly affected by environment than by genotype. Test weight, groat percentage, groat weight, protein, and β‐glucan were about equally influenced by environment and by genotype, whereas groat lipid was more strongly influenced by genotype. Significant environment × genotype interactions for all characteristics were attributed to differential resistance of genotypes to crown rust (caused by Puccinia coronata Corda var. aveneae W.P. Fraser & Ledingham) infection. Environments severely affected by crown rust produced grain with lower test weight, groat weight, and groat percentage in susceptible genotypes. Correlation analyses suggested that warm, bright (high solar radiation) spring weather, and cooler summer weather without excessive rains during grain filling generated the best oat yields with high quality grain.

Cadmium (Cd) level in flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) grown on uncontaminated, alkaline soils has exceeded limits established in Northern Europe. More than 2700 accessions from the USDA flax collection were field grown in 1994 on a Fargo silty clay soil known to be relatively high in plant available Cd. Flax samples were harvested at maturity. Samples were threshed and processed by hand to prevent Cd contamination. Standard analytic procedures were used to determine Cd concentration by inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Simple product moment correlations and multiple linear regression models were employed in an attempt to explain variability in seed Cd content. The largest product moment correlations with known descriptors were for capsule type (r=0.20), maturity (r=0.22) and oil percentage (r=-0.23). A multiple linear model fitting numerous characteristics indicated a contribution from plant type (P<0.0001), oil percentage (P<0.0001), country of origin (P<0.0001) and maturity(P<0.03). The mean Cd level of all accessions was 1.04 mg kg(-1) with a range of 0.27 to 3.60 mg kg(-1). All three accessions with very low Cd(<0.3 mg/kg) were from Pakistan. An additional 42 accessions from other countries of origin with Cd level <0.6 mg kg(-1) and 12 accessions with very high Cd(>2 mg kg(-1)) were selected for continued evaluation and crossing.

Nearest-neighbor analysis (NNA) adjusts for spatially correlated residuals, with the goal of increasing precision. The magnitude of the block x treatment interaction mean square is commonly used to evaluate the precision of the NNA model. An alternative method of evaluating the precision of the NNA and classical unadjusted (UNADJ) randomized complete block (RCB) analysis would be to use the pooled variance between duplicate treatments within each block. We defined pare error as variation between plots that are treated alike within a block. Within each location, each genotype was randomly assigned to two plots within each block of an RCB design. The pure error of soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] genotypes was evaluated at eight locations. Our objective was to compare the block X treatment and pure error mean squares for yield, physiological maturity, and plant height to determine whether the NNA or UNADJ analysis reduces intrablock variation. The NNA analysis always decreased the magnitude of the block x treatment interaction mean squares, compared with the UNADJ analysis. In some comparisons, the pure error mean square of the NNA analysis was significantly smaller than the pure error of the UNADJ analysis. The magnitude of the block x treatment mean square is not useful for comparing the relative precision of these two analyses. When the pure error mean square was used to measure precision, the NNA was at least as precise as the UNADJ analysis.

Plants of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) which retain a green color in stems at physiological maturity are characterized as having the stay green trait. Research on inheritance of the stay green/early senescence trait may provide valuable information to plant breeders for developing new cultivars with better resistance to drought and pests, and increased standability. This study was conducted to determine the general (GCA) and specific (SCA) combining abilities of different female and male inbred lines in F-1 hybrids for the stay green characteristic. The study included 36 sunflower hybrids produced by crossing six female lines to six male lines in a factorial mating design. Change in stem color was used as a criterion for the stay green characteristic with stem color analyzed by a computer program called Maps and Image Processing System. The relative magnitude of ratios of the female and male GCA components to the female and male GCA plus SCA components for the stay green trait, suggested that additive gene effects were more important than nonadditive gene effects in controlling stay green expressed among hybrid combinations. However, significant SCA effects detected at physiological maturity also implied the contribution of nonadditive effects to the variation. Nonsignificant correlation coefficient between stem color at physiological maturity and seed moisture content at harvest indicated that it is possible to develop hybrids with the stay green trait and low harvest seed moisture content. Significant but small correlation coefficients for stem color between different plant stages after anthesis suggested that selection would be most effective at physiological maturity.

High grain protein content of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L.) is important for improved cooking and nutritional quality. The development of a set of 'Langdon'-dicoccoides [LDN(DIC)] chromosome substitution lines offers an opportunity to develop new high protein durum cultivars. The objective of this research was to determine under field conditions the biological reason for the changes in grain protein content. The substitution lines studied included two LDN(DIC-2A) lines; one each of the LDN(DIC-4A), LDN(DIC-4B), and LDN(DIC-5B) lines; and three LDN(DIC-6B) lines. The changes in accumulation and partitioning of dry weight (DW) and N as a result of substituting specific DIC chromosomes into LDN durum were consistent across the environments tested. Certain DIC chromosomes altered the accumulation ratio (total plant N/total plant DW), others altered the partitioning ratio (N harvest index/harvest index), and others appeared to alter both ratios to affect grain protein content. The major reason for the lower N contents of the 2A, 4A, and 4B lines was a decreased partitioning ratio, and the major reason for the higher N content of the 5B line was a higher accumulation ratio. The 6B lines were the only lines where the accumulation and partitioning ratios were always equal to or greater than LDN. The three 6B lines varied for the relative importance of changes in the accumulation and partitioning ratios to increase grain N content.

Flax (Linum usitatissmum L.) accumulates Na but little is known about factors influencing Na accumulation in seed of this species. We investigated the influence of added Na (0, 44, and 88 mg NaCl-Na kg(-1) soil) and K (0, 75, and 150 mg KCl-K kg(-1) soil) on accumulation of these elements by 'Omega' flax grown on an Aeric Calciaquoll in the greenhouse. The principal findings were: (i) vegetative tissue and seed contained up to 5960 and 754 mg Na kg(-1), respectively, in the absence of added K; (ii) added Na increased and added K decreased Na concentration in both vegetative tissue and seed; (iii) negative Na x K interactions for Na concentration were due to ion antagonism and were largely unrelated to dilution effects; (iv) seed K concentration was increased by added K and little affected by added Na; (v) Na, in contrast to K, accumulated preferentially in older leaf and stem tissues; and (vi) added Na and K had little influence on seed Ca and Mg concentration. Analysis of seed from five flax nursery trials indicated that both genotype and location influenced seed Na concentration. Commercial flax seed is likely to vary considerably in Na concentration due to edaphic factors, particularly Na and Pt availability, and genetic factors.

Malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) breeders often are accused of using germplasm with a narrow genetic base for development of new cultivars. Yet, gains are being made in improving agronomic and malt quality traits. This suggests that more variability exists than otherwise can be expected by examining pedigrees. The objective of this study was to compare results from the cluster analysis based on the coefficients of parentage between 21 North American six-rowed barley cultivars with the cluster analysis based on 10 malt quality traits of the same cultivars. This information may aid us in determining if further gains can be expected by intercrossing closely related genotypes, and to identify those malt quality traits in which improvement can be expected. Malt quality traits evaluated were kernel plumpness, grain protein, hue-grind extract, coarse-grind extract, fine-coarse extract difference, soluble protein, soluble protein to total barley protein ratio, diastatic power, alpha-amylase activity, alkaline viscosity, and total malt beta-glucan content. Data on these traits for each of the 21 cultivars were collected on malt produced from samples of grain grown at Fargo, ND, over 3 yr. Composition of the clusters based on the coefficients of parentage was different from that of the clusters based on the analysis of malt quality traits. Clusters based on the analysis of the coefficients of parentage were related to the location of develop ment of the cultivars. Results suggest that gains in malting quality still may be expected from intercrossing germplasm from different breeding programs and even within a program. Traits that may be improved further are kernel plumpness, diastatic power, alpha-amylase activity, soluble to total protein ratio, alkaline viscosity, and total malt beta-glucan.

Breeding to improve stem strength is a major objective of researchers of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.). This study was undertaken to investigate genetic factors controlling reduced plant height and increased stem diameter in three sources of sunflower, DDR, Donsky, and Donskoi 47, crossed with a conventional height line, HA 89. As these two characters may lead to improved standability, knowledge of their inheritance will assist researchers in utilizing proper breeding methods. Estimates of additive, dominance, and epistatic genetic effects controlling reduced height indicated that the additive component was most important in two of the three crosses with the additive and epistatic component nearly equal in the third cross. Breeding efforts to reduce height of sunflower hybrids utilizing these lines in crosses could be effective due to the magnitude of additive effects. The dominance component of genetic effects controlling stem diameter was the most important for two crosses, with both dominance and additive components important for the third cross. Epistasis was present, but minor, for controlling stem diameter. The high relative importance of the dominance component indicates that testcross evaluation of lines in early generations could identify lines for producing increased stem diameter in hybrids. Even though the three sources of sunflower with reduced height were different in morphologic and agronomic characteristics, they had similar genetic control of plant height and stem diameter. Each could be utilized in a breeding program to develop lines with reduced height and larger stem diameter.

Effects of aneuploidy and modifier genes on the expression of male‐fertility restoring (Rf) genes were studied in five sets of monosomics from crosses involving male‐sterile ‘Chris’ monosomics and five R‐lines of wheat, Triticum aestivum L. Two lines were RflRfl, two were Rf4Rf4, and one (the progenitor of the other four lines) was RflRfl Rf4Rf4 and had other unidentified Rf genes. Rf1 and Rf4 are located on Chromosomes 1A and 6B, respectively. The fertility of the F1 monosomics within and between the five sets of crosses indicated that one RflRfl and one Rf4Rf4 line had additional recessive male‐fertility restoring genes. Also, the fertility was significantly enhanced in some of the F1 monosomics of homoeologous Groups 1 and 7, greatly reduced in the F1 monosomics of Groups 3 and 6, and substantially reduced in five other monosomics: 2A, 2B, 4B, 5B, and 5D. Thus, male fertility in this material is evidently conditioned by interactions among genes located on at least 17 chromosomes of wheat. The enhanced fertility of the F1 monosomics of homoeologous Groups 1 and 7 is attributed to the action of homoeoalleles in those groups which function better in five doses than in the normal six.

Two procedures to change ear drying rates were tested in five early maize (Zea mays L.) synthetics for their relative merits for breeding varieties adaptable to more timely harvest, which requires less grain drying and possession of acceptable agronomic characteristics. Objectives of this study were to assess the relative effectiveness of a laboratory and a field selection method for improving harvest moisture contents and to measure any correlated responses for other agronomic traits. Substrains in each synthetic, divergently selected for two or more cycles for relative rates of moisture loss from ears in the laboratory were evaluated in six environments along with substrains divergently selected for two cycles for ear moisture content at 45 days postpollination. Regression procedures were used to evaluate selection responses for ear moisture at harvest and correlated responses of other agronomic traits. Selection for slow relative moisture loss in the laboratory (SD) changed field harvest moisture by −6.73 g kg−1 cycle−1 and produced correlated reductions in ear length, kernels per ear, kernel rows per ear, ear weight, and root lodging. Selection for low ear moisture at 45 days postpollination (LM) changed harvest ear moisture in selected strains by −7.15 g kg−1 cycle−1. Correlated increases in test weight and decreases in stalk lodging also were observed. Selection for fast relative moisture loss in the laboratory (FD) or high moisture content at 45 days postpollination (HM) generally produced increased ear moisture at harvest in selected strains. Neither yield nor silking dates were changed by the selection methods. Harvest moisture responses from the SD method seemingly resulted from reduced moisture content at 45 days postpollination rather than changes in the rate of moisture loss from the ear. Whether selection has produced basic changes in endosperm composition remains to be determined. The LM method appears very feasible for practical breeding programs because of simplicity and effectiveness

Accurate loss procedure and compensation due to hail losses are a major concern to both the producer and the insurance company. Field experiments simulating leaf loss such as that which would occur as a result of a hail storm were conducted on hybrid sunflower ( Helianthus annuus L.) at Carrington and Fargo, ND. The objective of this study was to investigate the agronomic response of sunflower to various levels of defoliation applied at different stages of plant development. Defoliation treatments (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the leaves randomly removed with a knife) were applied at nine stages of plant development from V4 through R7. Fifty, 75, and 100% defoliation averaged across all developmental stages decreased seed yield significantly compared to the check. Seventy-five and 100% defoliation decreased seed yield significantly compared to the check when treatments were applied at the R1 through R6 stages. Plant death often resulted when treatments of 100% defoliation were applied at stages R3 and R4. Oil percentage decreased significantly with 100% defoliation at the R4 through R7 stages. One-hundred-percent defoliation averaged over all stages of plant development decreased oil percentage an average of 11.9%. One-hundred-percent defoliation averaged across all stages of plant development decreased head diameter, plant height, percent stem breakage; days to R5.5, and achene weight. Complete removal of leaves at the reproductive (R) stages of plant development affected the variables measured to the greatest degree. As defoliation percentage decreased, values of variables measured were affected to a lesser degree.

Crop ScienceVolume 23, Issue 2 cropsci1983.0011183X002300020059x p. 401-401 Registration of Crop Cultivar Registration of Flor Flax1 (Reg. No. 37) J. J. Hammond, J. J. HammondSearch for more papers by this authorJ. F. Miller, J. F. MillerSearch for more papers by this authorG. D. Statler, G. D. StatlerSearch for more papers by this authorT. J. Gulya, T. J. Gulya Professor Dep. of Agronomy, North Dakota State Univ.; research geneticist, USDA-ARS, Fargo, N. Dak.; professor, Dep. of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State Univ.; research pathologist, USDA-ARS, Fargo, ND 58105.Search for more papers by this author J. J. Hammond, J. J. HammondSearch for more papers by this authorJ. F. Miller, J. F. MillerSearch for more papers by this authorG. D. Statler, G. D. StatlerSearch for more papers by this authorT. J. Gulya, T. J. Gulya Professor Dep. of Agronomy, North Dakota State Univ.; research geneticist, USDA-ARS, Fargo, N. Dak.; professor, Dep. of Plant Pathology, North Dakota State Univ.; research pathologist, USDA-ARS, Fargo, ND 58105.Search for more papers by this author First published: 01 March 1983 https://doi.org/10.2135/cropsci1983.0011183X002300020059xCitations: 1 1 Registered by the Crop. Sci. Soc. of Am. Cooperative investigations between the North Dakota Agric. Exp. Stn. and the USDA-ARS, Fargo, ND 58105. Published with the approval of the Director of the North Dakota Agric. Stn. as Series Paper No. 1207. AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL No abstract is available for this article.Citing Literature Volume23, Issue2March–April 1983Pages 401-401 RelatedInformation

Ten durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L. var durum) cultivars and experimental lines were crossed, and lines were generated for two genetic studies pertaining to the inheritance of semolina color. Experiment I included six crosses grown in a split plot arrangement of a randomized complete block design over three environments. Data on semolina color for P1, P2, F1, F2 F3, BCP1 and BCP2 generations were analyzed by using an unweighted least squares procedure to determine the relative importance of gene effects. An average of 82% of the genetic variability for semolina color was attributed to additive effects. In Exp. II, F3 lines and their corresponding F4 families were derived from five of the original crosses and grown in an augmented design with replicated checks at one location. Heritabilities were calculated for the five crosses and compared to realized heritabilities, revealing only slight differences. The realized heritabilities obtained for the five crosses were 69, 66, 31, 52, and 66%. There were only slight differences between the predicted and actual gains for each cross. Transgressive segregation for high color was found in four of the five crosses. Semolina color was a highly heritable trait controlled primarily by additive gene effects. The intensity of expression was influenced by environment, but improvement of color should be possible through early generation selection.

Knowledge of specific plant characteristics in a germplasm collection and of the relationships between characteristics facilitates efficient use of that collection. The objectives of this study were to develop an information system for a collection of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.), including inventory control, morphologic, agronomic, and quality characteristics, and to utilize programs to analyze relationships between these characteristics. The search for a single character or any combination of a number of characters can be accomplished, ranked in order or by accession number and name. Genetic relationships between characteristics can also be determined. Efficient management of a germplasm collection is feasible for a curator located at an outlying university or research center, and is time and labor saving. The system developed permits rapid response to user’s queries in sending information regarding specific characteristics as well as seed to any improvement program.