Direct measurements of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and meridional heat transport (MHT) are necessary to better understand the impact of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions for the global climate system. The RAPID-MOCHA-WBTS array at 26°N is the only trans-Atlantic observing system to provide 20 years of continuous measurements of the AMOC and MHT. While the design of the array has continuously evolved as our understanding of the AMOC has advanced and as new technologies have become available, the goal of the RAPID-evolution project is now to design a lower cost and sustainable observing system to continue the measurements at the accuracy required by users. Using the dataset gathered since 2004 and ocean reanalysis, a first objective seeks to evaluate the sensitivity of the AMOC estimate to the choice of methodology and data included in the calculation. The project includes the development of a new high-resolution ocean model to identify the short and longer term impacts of incorporating these datasets in the AMOC estimation. Recent technological developments also enable new approaches that could provide better and more cost-effective calculation of the AMOC. The RAPID-Evolution project investigates these approaches and develops methodologies to make use of them, including a new variation of the stepping method using glider deployments and the telemetry of mooring data via an autonomous vehicle.

Marine heatwaves are becoming increasingly frequent across the world's oceans. As a result, there are growing impacts on marine ecosystems due to temperatures exceeding the thermal niche and historical exposure of many species. Anticipating the future frequency and severity of marine heatwaves is necessary. Here, we provide the first projections of future marine heatwaves for the sea surface and seafloor across the northwestern European shelf, which is a critically important marine ecosystem. We use an ensemble of five dynamically downscaled hydrodynamic models under the high-emission scenario Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 (RCP 8.5). Heatwaves were defined as events lasting at least 5 d where temperatures exceed the 90th percentile of a historical baseline period. The frequency of marine heatwaves at the surface and seafloor is projected to increase significantly during the 21st century under RCP 8.5, with most of the year being projected to be under heatwave conditions by the end of the century. Critically, we find that marine heatwaves are projected to increase in frequency to a greater extent at the seafloor compared to at the sea surface due to their lower levels of natural temperature variation. Similarly, we find that the severity of summer heatwaves at the surface is projected to be lower than that of heatwaves during the rest of the year due to lower climatological variations in temperature outside the summer. The impacts of marine heatwaves in shelf seas are therefore likely to be much more complex than previously thought.

The latest generation CMIP6-class Earth system models (ESMs) are a great tool for projecting climate variability on multi-centennial and global scales as they are designed to explicitly represent the process-coupling amongst the different Earth system components (atmosphere, ocean, land, cryosphere, biosphere) and prioritise system robustness such as minimisation of drift. However, CMIP6-ESMs do not accurately represent the fine-scale circulation and water-masses in ocean margins and shelf seas since by design: (i) their resolution is too coarse and so they only implicitly include regional-scale processes or even exclude these processes (particularly shelf-seas related processes); and (ii) their initialisation from a steady state leads to their divergence from reality and present-day conditions. To address these shortcomings and project the impacts of climate change in the Atlantic Ocean with focus on regional scales, we downscale globally an ensemble of future ocean projections with a NEMO-ERSEM coupled hydrodynamic-ecosystem model. Here, we discuss the design-methodology for our global ocean downscaling experiment: (i) selection of future scenarios, (ii) initialisation from “real” ocean conditions, (iii) selection of the CMIP6-ESMs atmospheric conditions to force our model based on their realism and uncertainty span, and (iv) treatment of the river runoffs as to impose both a realistic rivers state and a future trend consistent with CMIP6-ESMs. Comparisons of our global ocean downscaling simulations to CMIP6-ESMs during the historical period demonstrate their added value in terms of representation of physical ocean conditions and circulation in the Atlantic Ocean. We also present preliminary analysis in terms of future trends in temperature, salinity and circulation patterns in the Atlantic Ocean, with focus on regional features like changes in the Gulf Stream and trends in coastal regions.

Arctic eddies are important for mixing and heat exchange between sea ice and ocean. The effect carries over to the ecosystem to cause spatial patterns of primary production up to fish distribution. Strong stratification makes the Rossby radius of eddies on Arctic shelve very small resulting in spatial gradients in eddy sizes over the Arctic. Limited resolution of models in the past has been preventing correct representation. We present eddy statistics in a kilometric Arctic Ocean NEMO-SI3 model, using NEMO version 5.0 with the RK3 advection scheme and the TKE mixing scheme. The sea ice rheology is aEVP. We aim to validate the number of eddies as well as eddy sizes with available data from satellite and moorings. This simulation was done as part of the CANARI project, which includes examination of future sea ice loss impact on mixing and the possibility of accelerated sea ice decline. This work was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) project CANARI NE/W004984/1. This work used the ARCHER2 UK National Supercomputing Service (https://www.archer2.ac.uk).

Direct measurements of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) and meridional heat transport (MHT) are necessary to better understand the impact of anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions for the global climate system. The RAPID-MOCHA-WBTS array at 26°N is the only trans-Atlantic observing system to provide 20 years of continuous measurements of the AMOC and MHT. While the design of the array has continuously evolved as our understanding of the AMOC has advanced and as new technologies have become available, the goal of the RAPID-evolution project is now to design a lower cost and sustainable observing system to continue the measurements at the accuracy required by users. Using the dataset gathered since 2004 and ocean reanalysis, a first objective seeks to evaluate the sensitivity of the AMOC estimate to the choice of methodology and data included in the calculation. The project includes the development of a new high-resolution ocean model to identify the short and longer term impacts of incorporating these datasets in the AMOC estimation. Recent technological developments also enable new approaches that could provide better and more cost-effective calculation of the AMOC. The RAPID-Evolution project investigates these approaches and develops methodologies to make use of them, including a new variation of the stepping method using glider deployments and the telemetry of mooring data via an autonomous vehicle.

We present an analysis of the evolution of near-bed oxygen in the next century in the northwest European continental shelf in a three-member ensemble of coupled physics–biogeochemistry models. The comparison between model results helps highlight the biogeochemical mechanisms responsible for the observed deoxygenation trends and their response to climate drivers. While all models predict a decrease in near-bed oxygen proportional to climate change intensity, the response is spatially heterogeneous, with hotspots of oxygen decline (up to −1 mg L−1) developing along the Norwegian trench in the members with the most intense change, as well as areas where compensating mechanisms mitigate change. We separate the components of oxygen change associated with the warming effect on oxygen solubility from those due to the effects of changes in transport and biological processes. We find that while warming is responsible for a mostly uniform decline throughout the shelf (−0.30 mg L−1 averaged across ensemble members), changes in transport and biological processes account for the detected heterogeneity. Hotspots of deoxygenation are associated with enhanced stratification that greatly reduces vertical transport. A major change in circulation in the North Sea is responsible for the onset of one such hotspot that develops along the Norwegian trench and adjacent areas in the members characterised by intense climate change. Conversely, relatively shallow and well-mixed coastal areas like the southern North Sea, Irish Sea and English Channel experience an increase in net primary production that partially mitigates oxygen decline in all members. This work represents the first multi-model comparison addressing deoxygenation in the northwest European shelf and contributes to characterising the possible trajectories of near-bed oxygen and the processes that drive deoxygenation in this region. As our downscaled members factor in riverine inputs and small- and medium-scale circulation, which are not usually well represented in earth system models, results are relevant for the understanding of deoxygenation in coastal and shelf systems.

Abstract A generalized methodology to deploy different types of vertical coordinate system in arbitrarily defined time‐invariant local areas of quasi‐Eulerian numerical ocean models is presented. After detailing its characteristics, we show how the general localization method can be used to improve the representation of the Nordic Seas overflows in the UK Met Office NEMO‐based eddy‐permitting global ocean configuration. Three z*‐levels with partial steps configurations localizing different types of hybrid geopotential/terrain‐following vertical coordinates in the proximity of the Greenland‐Scotland ridge are implemented and compared against a control configuration. Experiments include a series of idealized and realistic numerical simulations where the skill of the models in computing pressure forces, reducing spurious diapycnal mixing and reproducing observed properties of the Nordic Seas overflows are assessed. Numerical results prove that the localization approach proposed here can be successfully used to embed terrain‐following levels in a global geopotential levels‐based configuration, provided that the localized vertical coordinate chosen is flexible enough to allow a smooth transition between the two. In addition, our experiments show that deploying localized terrain‐following levels via the multi‐envelope method allows the crucial reduction of spurious cross‐isopycnal mixing when modeling bottom intensified buoyancy driven currents, significantly improving the realism of the Nordic Seas overflows simulations in comparison to the other configurations. Important hydrographic biases are found to similarly affect all the realistic experiments and a discussion on how their interaction with the type of localized vertical coordinate affects the realism of the simulated overflows is provided.

The 5-year Ocean Regulation of Climate by Heat and Carbon Sequestration and Transports (ORCHESTRA) programme and its 1-year extension ENCORE (ENCORE is the National Capability ORCHESTRA Extension) was an approximately 11-million-pound programme involving seven UK research centres that finished in March 2022. The project sought to radically improve our ability to measure, understand and predict the exchange, storage and export of heat and carbon by the Southern Ocean. It achieved this through a series of milestone observational campaigns in combination with model development and analysis. Twelve cruises in the Weddell Sea and South Atlantic were undertaken, along with mooring, glider and profiler deployments and aircraft missions, all contributing to measurements of internal ocean and air–sea heat and carbon fluxes. Numerous forward and adjoint numerical experiments were developed and supported by the analysis of coupled climate models. The programme has resulted in over 100 peer-reviewed publications to date as well as significant impacts on climate assessments and policy and science coordination groups. Here, we summarize the research highlights of the programme and assess the progress achieved by ORCHESTRA/ENCORE and the questions it raises for the future. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue ‘Heat and carbon uptake in the Southern Ocean: the state of the art and future priorities’.

Abstract. We present an analysis of the evolution of near-bed oxygen in the next century in the Northwest European Continental Shelf in a three-member ensemble of coupled physics-biogeochemistry models. The comparison between model results helps highlighting the biogeochemical mechanisms responsible for the observed deoxygenation trends and their response to climate drivers. While all models predict a decrease in near bed oxygen proportional to climate change intensity, the response is spatially heterogeneous, with hotspots of oxygen decline in the members with the most intense change, as well as areas where compensating mechanisms mitigate change. We separate the components of oxygen change associated to the warming effect on oxygen solubility from those due to the effects of changes in transport and ecosystem processes. We find that while warming is responsible for a mostly uniform decline throughout the shelf, changes in transport and ecosystem processes account for the detected heterogeneity. Hotspots of deoxygenation are associated with enhanced stratification that greatly reduces vertical transport. A major change in circulation in the North Sea is responsible for the onset of one such hotspot in the members characterised by intense climate change. Conversely, relatively shallow and well mixed coastal areas in the south experience an increase in net primary production that partially mitigates oxygen decline in all members. This work represents the first multi-model comparison addressing deoxygenation in the Northwest European Shelf and contributes to the understanding of the processes that drive deoxygenation in continental shelf ecosystems.

In response to an increasing demand for bespoke or tailored regional ocean modelling configurations, we outline fundamental principles and practices that can expedite the process to generate new configurations. The paper develops the principle of reproducibility and advocates adherence by presenting benefits to the community and user. The elements of this principle are reproducible workflows and standardised assessment, with additional effort over existing working practices being balanced against the added value generated. The paper then decomposes the complex build process, for a new regional ocean configuration, into stages and presents guidance, advice and insight for each component. This advice is compiled from across the NEMO (Nucleus for European Modelling of the Ocean) user community and sets out principles and practises that encompass regional ocean modelling with any model. With detailed and region-specific worked examples in Sects. 3 and 4, the linked companion repositories and DOIs all target NEMOv4. The aim of this review and perspective paper is to broaden the user community skill base and to accelerate development of new configurations in order to increase the time available for exploiting the configurations.

Data produced by analysis of the SMURPHS ensemble model output, as described in Boland et al 2022 (in prep). This data is required to reproduce the figures from this paper.See https://github.com/emmomp/SMURPHS_OHC for:-notebooks to produce the figures from Boland et al 2022 (in prep) using this data - see below for which tar balls are needed for which figure.-code to reproduce this data from the SMURPHS model outputTo reproduce the figures, you need the following directories/files:- Figure 1 & Table 2: ohc_tseries, pic_data- Figure 2: ohc_tseries, pic_data, other_model_data- Figure 3: ohc_trends- Figures 4, S1, S2: ohc_xy- Figures 5, S3-S6: ohc_yz- Figure 6: ohc_xy- Figure 7: ohc_yz- Figure S7: amoc_tseries- Figure S8: SIE_SH.ncThe data files loaded were created using the python scripts in https://github.com/emmomp/SMURPHS_OHC/code/ as follows:- ohc_tseries: ohc_by_basin_depth.py- pic_data: ohc_by_basin_depth_pic.py, ohc_pic_drift.py, ohc_xy_pic_drift.py, ohc_yz_pic_drift.py, ohc_xy_pic.py, ohc_yz_pic.py- ohc_trends: ohc_weightedtrends_obs.py, ohc_weightedtrends.py- ohc_xy: ohc_xy.py, ohc_xy_trends.py- ohc_yz: ohc_yz.py, ohc_yz_trends.py- amoc_tseries: calculate_AMOC.py- SIE_SH.nc : calc_SH_SIE.pyFor the SMURPHS ensemble, see Dittus et al. 2020 (https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085806)

Oceanic influences on shelf seas are mediated by flow along and across continental slopes, with consequences for regional hydrography and ecosystems. Here we present evidence for the variable North Atlantic influence on European shelf seas over the last 4 decades using ocean analysis and reanalysis products, as well as an eddy-resolving ocean model hindcast. To first order, flows oriented along isobaths at the continental slope are related to the poleward increase in density in the adjacent deep ocean that supports a geostrophic inflow towards the slope. In the North Atlantic, this density gradient and associated inflow have undergone substantial, sometimes abrupt, changes in recent decades. Inflow in the range 10–15 Sv is identified with eastward transport in temperature classes at 30∘ W in the latitude range 45–60∘ N. Associated with major subpolar warming around 1997, a cool and fresh branch of the Atlantic inflow was substantially reduced, while a warm and more saline inflow branch strengthened, with respective changes of the order of 5 Sv. Total inflow fell from ∼ 15 Sv pre-1997 to ∼ 10 Sv post-1997. In the model hindcast, particle tracking is used to trace the origins of poleward flows along the continental slope to the west of Ireland and Scotland before and after 1997. Backtracking particles up to 4 years, a range of subtropical and subpolar pathways is identified from a statistical perspective. In broad terms, cold, fresh waters of subpolar provenance were replaced by warm, saline waters of subtropical provenance. These changes have major implications for the downstream shelf regions that are strongly influenced by Atlantic inflow, in particular the northern North Sea, where “subtropicalization” of ecosystems has already been observed since the late 1990s.

The vertical coordinates (VC) are one of the most important set of configuration options of an ocean model. Optimisation is, however, a non-trivial exercise. We compare nine configurations to investigate different VC options and contrast the Vanishing Quasi-Sigma (VQS), partial step z-level, s-z hybrid and Multi-Envelope (MEs) approaches. Using NEMO model simulations, a hierarchy of experiments are conducted, including: unforced simulations, multi-year climatological simulations with comparisons against tracer profile observations, and tide-only simulations. Hydrostatic pressure gradient errors on the continental slope in the VQS coordinates are found to be consistent with reduced domain-averaged accuracy in both unforced and realistic simulations. Reduced accuracy on the continental shelf is associated with larger advective tracer transports at the shelfbreak. Accuracy is improved by using separate definitions of the computational surfaces on the shelf and slope using the MEs and s-z hybridisation approaches. MEs configurations employing VQS on the continental slope with a computational slope steepness parameter, rmax, of 0.04–0.07, perform comparably with s-z hybrid configurations. Restrictions on the tilt of computational surfaces on the shelf and upper slope appear less important. In contrast, tide-only experiments without stratification show that tidal simulation quality is linked with accurately representing the shelf bathymetry, which favours terrain-following systems. The experiments support transitioning the vertical coordinates across the shelfbreak using either a MEs or hybrid s-z approach as a flexible route to improving accuracy in regional and global models.

The effect of tides on the Indonesian Throughflow (ITF) is explored in a regional ocean model of South East Asia. Our model simulations, with and without tidal forcing, reveal that tides drive only a modest increase in the ITF volume, heat and salt transports toward the Indian Ocean. However, tides drive large regional changes in these transports through Lombok Strait, Ombai Strait and the Timor Sea, and regulate the partitioning of the ITF amongst them. The effect of tidal mixing on the salinity and temperature profiles within the Indonesian Seas drives a small decrease in the heat and salt transports toward the Indian Ocean in all three exit passages. In contrast, the tidal residual circulation due to the interaction between the tides and the topography and stratification (including the effects of tidal mixing on the circulation) leads to a large decrease in the transports toward the Indian Ocean through the Lombok and Ombai straits, but a large increase through the Timor Sea. Hence, the small net contribution from tides to the ITF's volume, heat and salt transports is due to a compensation between large, but opposing tidal residual transports at the combined Lombok and Ombai straits and in the Timor Sea. Our results indicate that explicit representation of tides, often missing in Earth system models, is necessary to accurately capture the ITF's pathway and so the tracer transport from the Pacific into the Indian Ocean.

This data contains the unprocessed output from the five equilibrium simulations used in the paper "Antarctic Bottom Water sensitivity to spatio-temporal variations in Antarctic meltwater fluxes". Simulations were run using the ocean and sea-ice components of CESM1, and the atmosphere was data-driven, and based on ERA5 reanalysis from 1958 until 1980. All data is in netcdf, and includes the description of flag values, and units. The five simulations differ in the freshwater flux scheme as described below:Simulation UNIF - files: ga1.f09_g16.308Forced with freshwater fluxes from the Antarctic Ice Sheet (AIS), uniformly distributed around the Antarctic coast. Total freshwater flux from AIS: 2075 Gt/yrSimulation BM - files: ga1.f09_g16.208Forced with asymmetric zonal freshwater fluxes from the AIS.Total freshwater flux from AIS: 2075 Gt/yrSimulation VARI - files: ga1.f09_g16.108Forced with asymmetric zonal and meridional freshwater fluxes from the AIS. Total freshwater flux from AIS: 2075 Gt/yrSimulation CV - files: ga1.f09_g16.408Forced with asymmetric meridional freshwater fluxes from the AIS, to mimic iceberg melting. Total freshwater flux from AIS: 934 Gt/yrSimulation VARI120% - files: ga1.f09_g16.x18Same as VARI, but the total freshwater fluxes were increased by 20%. Total freshwater flux from AIS: 2490 Gt/yr[30S 90S] , [180W 180E] Variables: Ocean Temperature [Celius], Salinity [PSU], Sea ice Fraction [fraction], Salt flux from sea ice [kg/m2/s], and ocean overturning [SV] For more information, check:https://doi.org/10.1002/essoar.10512610.1

Coastal and shelf seas provide a diverse range of ecosystem services, which are often mediated by seasonal density stratification through its control on biogeochemical cycles. These seas are highly vulnerable to climate change and downscaling studies consistently project an increase in seasonal stratification over the next century, but without a clear explanation. Here we revisit a well-established theory of coastal ocean mixing and demonstrate with a new ensemble of downscaled simulations for the Northwest European continental shelf seas to 2100 that the increase of expansivity with temperature is sufficient to consistently increase the seasonal stratification. Where there is a closed balance between buoyancy input and mixing, small changes in expansivity are amplified to a large relative change in stratification. This simple link between global heating and stratification substantially reduces uncertainty in projections of this key parameter in seas around the world.

Data produced by analysis of the SMURPHS ensemble model output, as described in Boland et al 2022 (in prep). This data is required to reproduce the figures from this paper.See https://github.com/emmomp/SMURPHS_OHC for:-notebooks to produce the figures from Boland et al 2022 (in prep) using this data - see below for which tar balls are needed for which figure.-code to reproduce this data from the SMURPHS model outputTo reproduce the figures, you need the following directories/files:- Figure 1 & Table 2: ohc_tseries, pic_data- Figure 2: ohc_tseries, pic_data, other_model_data- Figure 3: ohc_trends- Figures 4, S1, S2: ohc_xy- Figures 5, S3-S6: ohc_yz- Figure 6: ohc_xy- Figure 7: ohc_yz- Figure S7: amoc_tseries- Figure S8: SIE_SH.ncThe data files loaded were created using the python scripts in https://github.com/emmomp/SMURPHS_OHC/code/ as follows:- ohc_tseries: ohc_by_basin_depth.py- pic_data: ohc_by_basin_depth_pic.py, ohc_pic_drift.py, ohc_xy_pic_drift.py, ohc_yz_pic_drift.py, ohc_xy_pic.py, ohc_yz_pic.py- ohc_trends: ohc_weightedtrends_obs.py, ohc_weightedtrends.py- ohc_xy: ohc_xy.py, ohc_xy_trends.py- ohc_yz: ohc_yz.py, ohc_yz_trends.py- amoc_tseries: calculate_AMOC.py- SIE_SH.nc : calc_SH_SIE.pyFor the SMURPHS ensemble, see Dittus et al. 2020 (https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085806)

This dataset consists of temperature and salinity profiles taken by Argo floats (http://argo.ucsd.edu) and ship-based CTDs as recorded in the World Ocean Database (https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/products/world-ocean-database). It covers 65°W to 80°E in longitude, 85°S to 30°S in latitude (roughly the South Atlantic Ocean and a part of the Indian Ocean). In the vertical, it covers the top 1000m of the ocean. It was prepared using MITprof, which is a toolbox for Matlab: Gael Forget. (2017). gaelforget/MITprof: various updates and minor improvements (v1.0.1). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.834078 This dataset should be considered the "initial" dataset that has been classified into five sub-groups using a profile classification model (PCM) built on Gaussian mixture modelling. The five-component PCM consists of these profile types: (1) subtropical Atlantic, (2) subtropical Indian, (3) circumpolar (more northern), (4) circumpolar (more southern), and (5) near-Antarctic.

Cold dense waters flowing south from the Nordic Seas and the Arctic Ocean form strong bottom intensified gravity currents at the Denmark Strait, Iceland-Faroe ridge, and Faroe-Scotland channel. Such overflows generate water-masses with specific hydrographic features which form the lower limb of the thermohaline circulation, responsible for a large fraction of the ocean heat transport on the Globe. Gravity current representation in ocean models is sensitive to the choice of the vertical coordinate system. Typically, global ocean models use geopotential z-level coordinates, representing the bottom topography as a series of step-like structures. However, this choice results in excessive entrainment and mixing when simulating gravity currents, even when the partial steps parametrization is employed. Conversely, terrain-following coordinates offers a natural representation of overflows but introduce errors in the computation of the pressure gradient force, making their use in global configurations challenging. To improve the representation of Nordic overflows in global models, Colombo (2018) proposed the use of a local-sigma vertical coordinate, where model surfaces are terrain-following only in the proximity of the Greenland-Scotland ridge, whilst standard z-level coordinates (with partial steps) are used everywhere else. However, the development of such a mesh is not trivial, especially when defining the transition zone between the two vertical coordinates. Similarly, to improve the representation of cross-shelf exchange in regional configurations Harle et al. (2013) developed a hybrid vertical coordinate (SZT) where terrain-following computational surfaces smoothly transition to z-level with partial steps below a user defined depth. Recently, Bruciaferri et al. (2018) introduced the Multi-Envelope (ME) s-coordinate system, where computational levels are curved and adjusted to multiple arbitrarily defined surfaces (aka envelopes) rather than following geopotential levels or the actual bathymetry. This allows the optimisation of model levels in order to best represent different physical processes within sub-domains of the model. In order to overcome the complexities of the local-sigma method, we propose combining this approach with the flexibility of the SZT and ME methods to generate localised versions of these vertical coordinates. We test this new methodology in the region of the Nordic Sea overflows in a ¼° global NEMO configuration. At first, a series of idealised numerical experiments is conducted to assess the ability of the local-SZT and local-ME grids to minimise both horizontal pressure gradient errors and spurious entrainment of overflow waters. Finally, the skill of the new local-ME and local-SZT systems in reproducing observed properties of the Nordic overflows is assessed and compared with the traditional approach of employing geopotential coordinates with partial steps. Bruciaferri, D., Shapiro, G.I. & Wobus, F. A multi-envelope vertical coordinate system for numerical ocean modelling. Ocean Dynamics 68, 1239–1258 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10236-018-1189-x Harle, J.D. et al. 2013. Report on role of biophysical interactions on basin-scale C and N budgets. Deliverable 6.5, European Basin-scale Analysis, Synthesis and Integration (EURO-BASIN) Project, http://eurobasin.dtuaqua.dk/eurobasin/documents/deliverables/D6.5%20Report%20on%20role%20of%20biophysical%20interactions%20on%20C%20N%20budget.pdf Pedro Colombo. Modélisation des écoulements d’eaux denses à travers des seuils topographiques dans les modèles réalistes de circulation océanique: une démonstration du potentiel que représente l’hybridation d’une coordonnée géopotentielle et d’une coordonnée suivant le terrain. Sciences de la Terre. Université Grenoble Alpes, 2018.