Primary cilia, organelles protruding from the surface of eukaryotic cells, act as cellular antennae to detect and transmit signals from the extracellular environment. They are built and maintained by continuous cycles of intraflagellar transport (IFT), where ciliary proteins are transported between the ciliary base and tip. These proteins originate from the cell body because cilia lack protein synthesis machinery. How input from the cell body affects IFT and ciliary function is not well understood. Here, we use femtosecond-laser ablation to perturb the dendritic input of proteins to chemosensory cilia in living Caenorhabditis elegans. Using fluorescence microscopy, we visualize and quantify the real-time response of ciliary proteins to dendritic ablation. We find that the response occurs in three distinct stages. First, IFT dynein is activated within seconds, redistributing IFT components toward the ciliary base; second, the ciliary axoneme shortens and motors slow down; and third, motors leave the cilium. Depletion of ATP by adding azide also results in IFT slowdown and IFT components leaving the cilium, but not in activation of retrograde IFT. These results indicate that laser ablation triggers a specific mechanism important for IFT regulation that allows the cilium to rapidly adapt to changes in the outside environment.

Fructan supplementation of a commercially available canned cat food was evaluated using senior (≥ 9 yr) cats to assess nitrogen (N) partitioning in excreta and stool metabolite and microbiota concentrations. Oligofructose (OF) or SynergyC (OF+IN) were added to the diet individually at 1% (dry weight basis). Cats were acclimated to the control diet for 7 d and then were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups for 21 d (n = 6). Feces and urine were collected on d 22 through 28. No differences were observed in food intake; fecal output, DM percentage, score, pH, or short- or branched-chain fatty acids, fecal and urinary ammonia output, urinary felinine concentrations, or N retention. Supplemental OF+IN tended to decrease N digestibility (P = 0.102) and Bifidobacteria spp. (P = 0.073) and decrease fecal indole (P < 0.05), tyramine (P < 0.05), and Escherichia coli (P < 0.05) concentrations. Both fructan-supplemented treatments decreased (P < 0.05) fecal histamine concentrations. The tendency to a lower apparent N digestibility was likely due to increased colonic microbial protein synthesis of fructan-supplemented cats. Fructan supplementation may benefit senior cats as it modulates stool odor-forming compounds and decreases some protein catabolites and pathogenic gut microbiota concentrations without affecting N retention.

Obesity has become a major global health problem. Recently, attention has focused on the benefits of fermentable carbohydrates on modulating metabolism. Here, we take a system approach to investigate the physiological effects of supplementation with oligofructose‐enriched inulin (In). We hypothesize that supplementation with this fermentable carbohydrate will not only lead to changes in body weight and composition, but also to modulation in neuronal activation in the hypothalamus. Male C57BL/6 mice were maintained on a normal chow diet (control) or a high fat (HF) diet supplemented with either oligofructose‐enriched In or corn starch (Cs) for 9 weeks. Compared to HF+Cs diet, In supplementation led to significant reduction in average daily weight gain (mean ± s.e.m.: 0.19 ± 0.01 g vs. 0.26 ± 0.02 g, P < 0.01), total body adiposity (24.9 ± 1.2% vs. 30.7 ± 1.4%, P < 0.01), and lowered liver fat content (11.7 ± 1.7% vs. 23.8 ± 3.4%, P < 0.01). Significant changes were also observed in fecal bacterial distribution, with increases in both Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillius and a significant increase in short chain fatty acids (SCFA). Using manganese‐enhanced MRI (MEMRI), we observed a significant increase in neuronal activation within the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of animals that received In supplementation compared to those fed HF+Cs diet. In conclusion, we have demonstrated for the first time, in the same animal, a wide range of beneficial metabolic effects following supplementation of a HF diet with oligofructose‐enriched In, as well as significant changes in hypothalamic neuronal activity.

Inflammation is a stereotypical physiological response to infections and tissue injury; it initiates pathogen killing as well as tissue repair processes and helps to restore homeostasis at infected or damaged sites. Acute inflammatory reactions are usually self-limiting and resolve rapidly, due to the involvement of negative feedback mechanisms. Thus, regulated inflammatory responses are essential to remain healthy and maintain homeostasis. However, inflammatory responses that fail to regulate themselves can become chronic and contribute to the perpetuation and progression of disease. Characteristics typical of chronic inflammatory responses underlying the pathophysiology of several disorders include loss of barrier function, responsiveness to a normally benign stimulus, infiltration of inflammatory cells into compartments where they are not normally found in such high numbers, and overproduction of oxidants, cytokines, chemokines, eicosanoids and matrix metalloproteinases. The levels of these mediators amplify the inflammatory response, are destructive and contribute to the clinical symptoms. Various dietary components including long chain ω-3 fatty acids, antioxidant vitamins, plant flavonoids, prebiotics and probiotics have the potential to modulate predisposition to chronic inflammatory conditions and may have a role in their therapy. These components act through a variety of mechanisms including decreasing inflammatory mediator production through effects on cell signaling and gene expression (ω-3 fatty acids, vitamin E, plant flavonoids), reducing the production of damaging oxidants (vitamin E and other antioxidants), and promoting gut barrier function and anti-inflammatory responses (prebiotics and probiotics). However, in general really strong evidence of benefit to human health through anti-inflammatory actions is lacking for most of these dietary components. Thus, further studies addressing efficacy in humans linked to studies providing greater understanding of the mechanisms of action involved are required.

Inflammation is a stereotypical physiological response to infections and tissue injury; it initiates pathogen killing as well as tissue repair processes and helps to restore homeostasis at infected or damaged sites. Acute inflammatory reactions are usually self-limiting and resolve rapidly, due to the involvement of negative feedback mechanisms. Thus, regulated inflammatory responses are essential to remain healthy and maintain homeostasis. However, inflammatory responses that fail to regulate themselves can become chronic and contribute to the perpetuation and progression of disease. Characteristics typical of chronic inflammatory responses underlying the pathophysiology of several disorders include loss of barrier function, responsiveness to a normally benign stimulus, infiltration of inflammatory cells into compartments where they are not normally found in such high numbers, and overproduction of oxidants, cytokines, chemokines, eicosanoids and matrix metalloproteinases. The levels of these mediators amplify the inflammatory response, are destructive and contribute to the clinical symptoms. Various dietary components including long chain omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidant vitamins, plant flavonoids, prebiotics and probiotics have the potential to modulate predisposition to chronic inflammatory conditions and may have a role in their therapy. These components act through a variety of mechanisms including decreasing inflammatory mediator production through effects on cell signaling and gene expression omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin E, plant flavonoids), reducing the production of damaging oxidants (vitamin E and other antioxidants), and promoting gut barrier function and anti-inflammatory responses (prebiotics and probiotics). However, in general really strong evidence of benefit to human health through anti-inflammatory actions is lacking for most of these dietary components. Thus, further studies addressing efficacy in humans linked to studies providing greater understanding of the mechanisms of action involved are required.

To search for nondigestible but fermentable (NDF) carbohydrates and prebiotics with a potency to promote the growth of selected bacteria in vitro.The growth of three reference bacteria strains Bacillus subtilis LMG 7135(T), Carnobacterium piscicola LMG 9839, Lactobacillus plantarum LMG 9211 and one candidate probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis was investigated over a minimum period of 48 h in the presence of beta-glucan, xylo-oligosaccharide, arabinoxylo-oligosaccharide, inulin, oligofructose and glucose. Besides the capability to grow on inulin and oligofructose containing media, a distinct high growth in beta-glucan based substrates and a low growth in (arabino)xylooligosaccharide containing media were evident for most bacteria tested. With the exception of B. subtilis and L. plantarum, other bacteria grew equally well or even better on different substrates than on glucose. The fermentation of studied carbohydrates by these micro-organisms was dominated by the production of acetic acid as the main short chain fatty acid.Selected bacteria are able to ferment and grow on NDF and prebiotic carbohydrates but in a substrate dependent manner.This study delivers a first screening of which NDF or prebiotic carbohydrates are the most promising for aquaculture feed supplementations.

Inulin-type fructans are the most extensively studied pre-biotic compounds with proven efficacy. As research progressed, three criteria that a food ingredient should fulfill before it can be classified as a prebiotic were accepted: first, it should be nondigestible and resistant to gastric acidity, hydrolysis by intestinal (brush border/pancreatic) digestive enzymes, and gastrointestinal absorption; second, it should be fermentable; and third, it should, in a selective way, stimulate the growth and/or metabolic activity of intestinal bacteria that are associated with health and well-being. Given the increasing prevalence of osteoporosis, increasing calcium absorption from the diet by the addition of inulin-type fructans is an important strategy to improve bone metabolism at all ages. At present there are two approaches to prevent osteoporosis. The first is by optimizing bone mass acquisition in the skeleton during growth, and the second is by minimizing bone loss in later life. More recently it was demonstrated that the effects of inulin-type fructans on cholesterol and lipid metabolism have beneficial consequences in the process of atherosclerosis given that both are at the basis of disease development. The mechanisms responsible for the effects of inulin-type fructans on lipid and cholesterol metabolism in the human body are complex and include various interdependent biochemical pathways which take place in the liver, pancreas, intestine, and peripheral tissues. Research in this field has evolved, with the primary focus being on endocrine activity in the gut.

CONTENTS Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Prebiotics in Animal Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422Inulin and Oligofructose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Galactooligosaccharides and Transgalactooligosaccharides . . . . . . . . . 423 Lactulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423Mode of Action of Prebiotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Prebiotics in Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Poultry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Broilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Laying Hens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Turkeys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Calves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Rabbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428Prebiotics in Companion Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Dogs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431All livestock and companion animals have intestines and intestinal microbiota. The composition of the microbiota is dynamic and ecologically diverse, with large differences between different host species.

Inulin‐type fructan (ITF) supplementation was evaluated in senior (≥ 9 y) cats to determine nitrogen (N) partitioning in excreta and stool metabolite concentrations. One of two ITF‐based supplements (oligofructose or SynergyC, an experimental blend of short and long chain ITF) was added to a commercially available wet cat food with low intrinsic fiber content at 1% on a dry weight basis. All cats were fed the diet without supplemental ITF for 7 d, after which cats were assigned to one of three treatment groups for 21 d. Total feces and urine excreted were collected from the cats on d 6–7 (baseline) and d 22–28 (treatment). No differences were observed in food intake; fecal output, dry matter percentage, or score; fecal or urinary ammonia output; or N retention. Supplemental ITF decreased (P < 0.05) N digestibility and fecal histamine, spermidine, and indole concentrations. Supplementation with SynergyC increased (P < 0.10) fecal propionate concentration. While not statistically significant, a numerical decrease in urinary N content was observed in ITF‐supplemented cats. Decreased apparent N digestibility was likely due to an increase in microbial protein synthesis in ITF‐supplemented cats. ITF supplementation may be beneficial to the senior cat as a result of its ability to modulate N concentration in excreta and decrease odor‐ and disease‐causing metabolites in feces.This work was sponsored by BENEO‐Orafti.

Animalia typically have a digestive tract for digestion of food and absorption of water. The intestinal tract is a nutrient-rich environment, as the digestive system of the host often lacks enzymes necessary to degrade certain food components. Other sources of nutrients originate from the high turnover of epithelial cells covering the intestinal surface and from the production of mucus. As the lining of the intestine is continuous with the skin, the interior intestinal space (chyme) of the intestine is external environment. There, as a consequence, is a continuous contamination pressure by bacteria that during evolution proved to be useful for further metabolism of nutrients, which the host failed to utilize. Intestinal flora coevolved with its host and the selection was driven by the intestinal architecture (morphology and transit scheme) and dietary habits of the host. Different animal species have different typical profiles of intestinal bacterial populations. The pertinently existing inter-individual differences between members of certain species are a variation on this typical profile. Animals in general seem not to be able to hydrolyze beta-glycoside bonds, such as the chicory inulin beta(2-1) bond. Chicory fructans were shown to be prebiotic (selectively interacting with intestinal bacterial ecosystem) (1) in humans and in animals, including livestock and pets. This article describes how prebiotic feeding contributes to zootechnical performance of livestock (pig, calf, horse, broiler, laying hen, and fish), which is driven by intestinal functioning, and to animal well-being (mainly pets but also livestock,) which has intestinal but also derived systemic origins.

BACKGROUND Animal studies suggest that prebiotics and probiotics exert protective effects against tumor development in the colon, but human data supporting this suggestion are weak. OBJECTIVE The objective was to verify whether the prebiotic concept (selective interaction with colonic flora of nondigested carbohydrates) as induced by a synbiotic preparation-oligofructose-enriched inulin (SYN1) + Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG (LGG) and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 (BB12)-is able to reduce the risk of colon cancer in humans. DESIGN The 12-wk randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a synbiotic food composed of the prebiotic SYN1 and probiotics LGG and BB12 was conducted in 37 colon cancer patients and 43 polypectomized patients. Fecal and blood samples were obtained before, during, and after the intervention, and colorectal biopsy samples were obtained before and after the intervention. The effect of synbiotic consumption on a battery of intermediate bio-markers for colon cancer was examined. RESULTS Synbiotic intervention resulted in significant changes in fecal flora: Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus increased and Clostridium perfringens decreased. The intervention significantly reduced colorectal proliferation and the capacity of fecal water to induce necrosis in colonic cells and improve epithelial barrier function in polypectomized patients. Genotoxicity assays of colonic biopsy samples indicated a decreased exposure to genotoxins in polypectomized patients at the end of the intervention period. Synbiotic consumption prevented an increased secretion of interleukin 2 by peripheral blood mononuclear cells in the polypectomized patients and increased the production of interferon gamma in the cancer patients. CONCLUSIONS Several colorectal cancer biomarkers can be altered favorably by synbiotic intervention.

Modern studies of prebiotic non digestible carbohydrates continue to expand and demonstrate their colonic and systemic benefits. However, virtually nothing is known of their use among ancient populations. In this paper we discuss evidence for prebiotic use in the archaeological record from select areas of the world. It is suggested that members of our genus Homo would have had sufficient ecological opportunity to include prebiotic-bearing plants in diet as early as ~ 2 million years ago, but that significant dietary intake would not have taken place until the advent of technological advances that characterized the Upper Paleolithic of ~40,000 years ago. Throughout human evolution, hominid populations that diversified their diet to include prebiotic-bearing plants would have had a selective advantage over competitors.

To verify whether the earlier experimentally observed suppression of carcinogenesis by food ingredients that induce prebiotic action (1) in the colon, also is valid for the human consumer.

In a dose-response study, the effects of a chicory fructan preparation (Raftifeed®IPE (IPE)) included in a maize/soya-diet were studied on the growth performance in broilers. The experiment comprised six diets with 0 (control), 1, 2, 5, 10 and 20 g IPE/kg diet and was conducted in males and females over a period from 0 to 35 d of age. The birds were kept in floor pens and each dietary treatment comprised 8 replicates (4 pens of 15 male and 4 pens of 15 female birds per treatment). Feed intake (FI), body weight gain (BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were determined weekly during the 5-wk experimental period. The results showed a significant (P≤0.05) improved FI, BWG and FCR over the period 0 to 21 d when levels of at least 10 g IPE/kg diet were included. Diets x gender interactions were significant (P≤0.05) for feed intake (FI) and body weight gain (BWG) and the effects were particularly observed in males and to a lesser extent in females. As described in literature, the gastro-intestinal tract (GIT) of bird becomes colonised with the initial microflora in the first weeks of life. In the present study, the beneficial effects of the dietary fructans on performance were observed in that period. The gender dependent effects of fructans are possibly related with the gender-differences with regard to the microbial composition of the digesta as has been described in literature. In summary: Clear significant positive effects of chicory fructans were demonstrated on performance especially in male broilers during the first weeks of life.

Aim To evaluate potential of dietary Synergy1 to increase bone density in children as a factor to reduce risk for osteoporosis. Methods Two groups of 50 girls and boys (11-14yr) were given 8g/day Synergy1 (oligofructose enriched inulin) or placebo for a period of 1yr in a parallel study design. Ca absorption (To, 2 and 12mo) and bone density (To and 12mo) were measured. Results and discussion Models have shown superior effects with Synergy1 on Ca and Mg absorption. Potential for postponing osteoporosis was further evaluated in growing rats and in ovary-ectomized rats, where bone mineral content increased and ovary-ectomy induced loss of bone structure was impeded. This supported the hypotheses that Synergy1 might increase peak bone mass during adolescence. Stable isotope studies in adolescents (15g/d OF 9d) and in pre-pubertal girls (8g/d Synergy1 3w) found significant increased Ca absorption. Children having lowest calcium absorption at baseline displayed greatest benefit. In elderly women both Ca and Mg absorption improved. Present 1-year intervention confirmed increased Ca absorption with Synergy1 at 2mo. The effect was still there after 12mo. Hence impact on Ca absorption is not temporary. Increased availability of Ca resulted in increased bone density and accretion rate (Abrams 05 AJCN). Conclusion Dietary Synergy1 may be efficient in reducing the risk for osteoporosis through persistently increasing Ca absorption.

Studies in animal models have shown increased calcium availability with inulin and oligofructose in the diet. This possibly beneficial effect of inulin-type fructans on the delay of osteoporosis was further evaluated in rats and it was found that accumulation of bone mineral and formation of improved trabecular network structure were indeed stimulated. In ovari-ectomized rats, oligofructose increased bone mineral content (BMC) and impeded ovari-ectomy induced loss of bone structure. These findings support the hypotheses that inulin and oligofructose might influence peak bone mass during adolescence in humans. Studies in girls with a high habitual calcium intake showed increased calcium absorption after supplementation of an oligofructose-enriched inulin (8gd−1) in the diet. This effect was highest in girls showing a habitual low degree of calcium absorption. Recently, a 1y intervention trial on pre-pubertal girls and boys (n=100) found significantly increased calcium absorption in the group receiving oligofructose-enriched inulin (8gd−1) after 8wks and the effect lasted during the whole intervention period, resulting in improved BMC and significantly increased bone mineral density compared to the controls.