The use of plant protection products (PPPs) in farming systems poses a potential risk to honey bee health, yet beekeepers' awareness and interactions with farmers remain understudied. This study compares the knowledge, perceptions, and PPP risk mitigation practices of amateur and professional beekeepers in Ireland and Greece, based on survey responses from 476 participants. Irish beekeepers were predominantly amateurs, while most Greek beekeepers were professionals. Irish amateurs reported significantly less experience in beekeeping and managed fewer hives compared to the other groups. Across both countries, insecticides were perceived as the most harmful PPPs to honey bees, with Greek beekeepers expressing greater concern than Irish counterparts. Greek beekeepers showed greater confidence in identifying PPP poisoning and were more likely to conduct PPP residue testing. Most beekeepers had limited interaction with farmers and were rarely notified before PPP application, often too late to take protective measures. Risk mitigation practices were minimal among Irish beekeepers, while Greek professionals more actively avoided agricultural areas. Beekeepers strongly agreed that farmers should be better informed on the risks of PPPs and expressed a desire for improved communication, preferably via mobile phone applications. Most respondents indicated interest in receiving further education, ideally through beekeeping associations. The findings highlight the need for targeted educational programs, structured beekeeper-farmer communication and collaboration, and accessible tools to mitigate PPP-related risks to honey bees. These insights can support the development of more effective pollinator protection and agro-ecological cooperation strategies.

Nutritional ecology is a key determinant of bee health, yet species-specific preferences and how bees respond nutritionally to real-world pesticide exposure remain unclear. We collected pollen stores from three managed bee species in 128 sites across two widespread agro-ecosystems (i.e., oilseed rape fields and apple orchards) in eight European countries. We measured protein content, lipid content, protein-to-lipid ratio as well as pesticide residues in pollen stores. We provide the first evidence of species-specific macronutritional patterns in the pollen stores of three managed bee species. The buff-tailed bumble bee stored pollen with significantly lower lipid content (mean: 44.1 mu g/mg) than the European honey bee (mean: 57.2 mu g/mg) and the red mason bee (mean: 54 mu g/mg). This reduced lipid content translated into a higher protein-to-lipid (P:L) ratio in the buff-tailed bumble bee (mean: 8.53) when compared to the European honey bee (mean: 5.85) and the red mason bee (mean: 5.60). Pesticide risk, measured as toxicity-weighted concentrations in pollen stores, did not influence P:L ratios in any species. However, increasing pesticide risk was associated with reduced protein content and lipid content in buff-tailed bumble bee stores, potentially leading to suboptimal colony development, whereas it was associated with increased protein content in red mason bee stores. Our findings suggest that bees maintain consistent macronutritional profiles in their pollen stores under pesticide exposure, at least in terms of P:L ratios, suggesting limited capacity to adapt their macronutritional dietary choices to mitigate agrochemical stress. These findings highlight a critical need to balance floral enhancements with a reduction in pesticide use to safeguard pollinators in agricultural landscapes.

Trace elements are persistent contaminants that enter bee diets through pollen, nectar, soil-derived particles and atmospheric deposition, yet field-based exposure data for pollinator taxa remain limited. We examined 18 trace elements (Al, As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, U, V, Zn) in pollen stored by managed western honey bees (Apis mellifera), buff-tailed bumble bees (Bombus terrestris), and red mason bees (Osmia bicornis) from 128 apple orchards and oilseed rape fields across eight European countries. We assessed species-, crop- and landscape-related drivers of element accumulation in stored pollen and honey bee workers, and used these data to estimate dietary exposure and risk. Stored pollen showed crop- and species-specific differences in trace element levels. Red mason bee pollen contained several-fold higher concentrations than honey bee and bumble bee pollen, suggesting that honey bees may not be a suitable model for pollen-based exposure studies. Stored pollen from apple orchards contained higher Cu than that from oilseed rape sites, likely linked to Cu-based fungicide use. Landscape characteristics, including crop and urban cover, influenced element concentrations in stored pollen and honey bee workers. Acute risks were assessed for As, Cd, Cu, and Hg, and chronic risks for As and Cd. For elements with available toxicity endpoints, estimated dietary risk was negligible or low; for elements lacking such endpoints, risk could not be quantified despite exposure estimates. Higher exposure of solitary bees, together with scarce toxicity data, indicates that future studies should focus on establishing species-specific toxicity endpoints.

Abstract Solitary bees constitute 75% of bee species but are understudied compared with social bees. Because of global pollinator declines, it is critical to develop effective conservation measures for solitary bees. Consequently, a thorough understanding of the local and landscape factors that influence the nesting of above‐ground nesting (AGN) and below‐ground nesting (BGN) species is required. We performed a systematic review of the scientific literature with respect to solitary bee nesting behaviour. A screening of ~15,000 articles resulted in 91 articles providing meaningful data for AGN bees and 55 articles for BGN bees. For AGN bees, we extracted information on factors, such as nest orientation, nest height, cavity size and nest materials. For BGN bees, we extracted information on factors, such as ground aspect and slope, bare soil and vegetation height. The effects of floral resources, prevalence of semi‐natural habitat (SNH) and wider habitat type were recorded for both AGN and BGN bees. Considering the factors examined in the existing literature, both AGN and BGN bees displayed higher nest occupancy in sites associated with SNH and/or high floral abundance. For AGN bees, trap nest occupancy was associated with nest‐site characteristics, such as the construction material and cavity diameter, while for BGN bees, nesting was associated with the prevalence of bare ground. Notably, however, the reported effects of most explanatory factors on solitary bee nesting behaviour were highly inconsistent across studies. Synthesis and applications. Collectively, these findings indicate that agri‐environment schemes aiming to support solitary bees should integrate the provision of nesting resources with proximity to floral resources. The heterogeneity among studies highlights the need for solitary bee conservation measures to be tailored to local conditions and to the local fauna. Where possible, nest‐site interventions, such as the placement of trap nests and substrate properties, should be tested experimentally across biogeographic zones to clarify their effects and assess the consistency of responses under different environmental conditions.

The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA EA) has been proposed as a useful method to support reporting for European Union (EU) public and private sector nature-related policies, including the European Environmental Economic Accounts (EEEA) Regulation, the Nature Restoration Regulation (NRR) and the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD). Given that 46% of the total EU land area is managed within farms, agriculture provides a useful context to test how the SEEA EA, applied at a local level, can provide aggregate information at landscape level and used for nature reporting at different scales. In Ireland, 72% of land is managed within farms with the dairy sector playing a key role in the value chains of agrifood businesses. Using an Irish dairy farm as a relevant case study, we tested how the SEEA EA can be used at farm-level to develop ecosystem accounts and improve farm environmental performance. In parallel, we compared farm-level, EEEA, NRR and CSRD reporting requirements to assess their potential for alignment through the SEEA EA. At farm scale, we found that applying the SEEA EA framework provided useful information for the farmer to achieve multiple environmental goals including biodiversity and climate targets. Comparing the EEEA, NRR, CSRD and farm-level reporting requirements showed they have similar needs relating to information on biodiversity and ecosystems. We outline how the SEEA EA provides a useful framework to align nature reporting for coherence, comparability and efficient use of resources with potential to amplify collective action for nature.

In Ireland, native and semi-natural woodlands dominated by native tree species occupy only a small proportion of the landscape and are highly fragmented. Recent expansion of these woodlands has been driven largely through native woodland afforestation schemes targeting different woodland habitat types according to soil and landscape context. Despite ongoing expansion of such tree-planting initiatives, systematic ecological monitoring of recently afforested native woodlands, largely established on private farmland, remains limited. This study evaluates early ecological trajectories of native woodland plantations and examines site-and landscape scale factors influencing plant community assembly and habitat development. Vegetation composition and structure were surveyed across a 20-year chronosequence of 47 native woodland plantations in agricultural landscapes of eastern and midland Ireland. Species richness was modelled to identify key environmental predictors, with patterns further elucidated through analysis of species composition and trait-environment relationships. Habitat trajectories were then assessed by comparison with National Forest Inventory reference conditions and vegetation community classification. Plant communities showed a clear temporal shift from grassland dominated assemblages to woodland vegetation with increasing stand age, shaped by landscape context. Most older stands aligned with their intended woodland vegetation communities, indicating positive restoration trajectories, while natural colonisation of native tree species increased with stand age, suggesting that tree planting does not preclude opportunities for a degree of process-driven restoration. Overall, results indicate that planted native woodlands can progress towards target woodland habitats within two decades, highlighting the potential for native afforestation on agricultural land to contribute to the expansion of biodiverse and resilient woodland networks within modified landscapes. These findings are also relevant to emerging forest and ecosystem restoration objectives under the EU Nature Restoration Law.

Pollinating insects are central to current EU biodiversity and restoration targets, yet their potential as indicators of biodiversity change in newly established native woodlands remains underexplored. As afforestation expands to address climate and ecological goals, selecting appropriate biodiversity metrics is critical, particularly in young plantations where traditional forest indicators may overlook early successional dynamics. This study evaluates bees and hoverflies as indicators of biodiversity change in newly planted and transitioning native woodlands in Ireland. We surveyed pollinator communities across 18 plantations using pan traps and transect walks, testing three hypotheses: (1) pollinator communities change predictably along the transition from open to closed-canopy woodland; (2) bees and hoverflies show distinct, trait-driven responses to woodland development; and (3) sampling method, timing and metric choice influence interpretations of community change. Species composition, beta diversity and interaction networks revealed clearer successional patterns than richness or abundance alone. Open habitat specialists declined with canopy closure, yet woodland specialists were slow to appear, indicating a lag between habitat development and faunal colonisation. Bees responded primarily to local habitat and floral resources, making them strong indicators of site-level woodland development, whereas hoverflies were more strongly influenced by off-site land-use patterns. Differences among metrics further shaped ecological interpretations, emphasising the need for multi-metric, methodologically consistent monitoring. Practical implication: Pollinators, particularly bees, offer sensitive and policy-relevant indicators of early woodland development, supporting the design of effective biodiversity monitoring frameworks for native afforestation and aligning directly with the evidence requirements of the EU Nature Restoration Law.

Ecosystem accounting is a structured way to integrate nature into sustainable decision-making. The System of Environmental Economic Accounting-Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EA) was adopted by the United Nations as a set of international standards for the collection of habitat data and compiling ecosystem accounts. The ecosystem extent account is one of the four pillars of the SEEA-EA framework, where the spatial composition of an ecosystem accounting area is grouped by habitat types, and the land cover change over time is quantified. Although a variety of tools exist for preparing extent accounts, most of them require moderate to high levels of technical expertise. Here, we present ExActR (Extent Accounts in R), an open-source application for generating extent accounts using shapefiles, a geospatial vector data format. The app is built in R and the associated Shiny framework, which automatically updates as the user interacts with it. The application supports multiple timepoints, where extent accounts (tables) are generated for consecutive pairs of timepoints, accommodating users’ needs for dynamic ecosystem assessments across several periods. Data visualisations are generated in the form of both interactive (leaflet) and static maps of each timepoint, and barplots to illustrate land type composition and change. A version of the app has been deployed (available at https://gibbona1.shinyapps.io/extent_app/), offering a space for interactive exploration of ecosystems. Shiny’s reactivity, combined with JavaScript plugins for copying tables into multiple formats, including LaTeX and plots, make the application results suitable to insert directly into reports. The app is suitable for using with any spatial grouping variable. We test its functionality on small and large study sites on CORINE land cover data, as well as land cover maps generated using very-high resolution satellite imagery of a wind farm site in Ireland, during and post construction, demonstrating its ability to adapt to various land cover classification systems. The tool can be used to understand, visualise and track changes in ecosystem assets, aiding interpretation by both scientists and stakeholders.

Vitellaria paradoxa is a multipurpose tree endemic to the Sudano-Sahelian zone of Africa. The edible fat extracted from shea kernel is of cultural, nutritional and industrial significance. Floral phenology and morphology do not only influence pollinator attraction but also serve as indicators of genetic diversity in tree improvement programmes. Understanding shea floral phenology is essential to unveiling phenological responses to climate change. The study investigated the relationship between floral phenology and climatic variables, and examined spatial variation in floral traits across six sites in three regions (Upper West, Upper East, and Northeast) of Ghana. Twenty focal trees were tagged for observation of phenological parameters and measurement of floral traits in each site. We found a variation in the date of flowering onset between regions. Flowering commenced in Upper West over a month earlier than Upper East and Northeast regions. The weekly number of trees commencing flowering was found to be significantly associated with soil moisture and soil temperature. Shea floral traits (pedicel diameter, pedicel length, petal length, filament length and style length) also differed significantly between regions. Although the study recommends multiple years of phenological observations on the impact of climatic conditions, the geographic variation in floral morphology should be considered in germplasm collection for tree improvement and domestication. Key Words: Flowers; floral phenology; floral traits; climatic factors; shea parkland; Vitellaria paradoxa

ABSTRACTLand use change threatens global biodiversity and compromises ecosystem functions, including pollination and food production. Reduced taxonomic α‐diversity is often reported under land use change, yet the impacts could be different at larger spatial scales (i.e., γ‐diversity), either due to reduced β‐diversity amplifying diversity loss or increased β‐diversity dampening diversity loss. Additionally, studies often focus on taxonomic diversity, while other important biodiversity components, including phylogenetic diversity, can exhibit differential responses. Here, we evaluated how agricultural and urban land use alters the taxonomic and phylogenetic α‐, β‐, and γ‐diversity of an important pollinator taxon—bees. Using a multicontinental dataset of 3117 bee assemblages from 157 studies, we found that taxonomic α‐diversity was reduced by 16%–18% in both agricultural and urban habitats relative to natural habitats. Phylogenetic α‐diversity was decreased by 11%–12% in agricultural and urban habitats. Compared with natural habitats, taxonomic and phylogenetic β‐diversity increased by 11% and 6% in urban habitats, respectively, but exhibited no systematic change in agricultural habitats. We detected a 22% decline in taxonomic γ‐diversity and a 17% decline in phylogenetic γ‐diversity in agricultural habitats, but γ‐diversity of urban habitats was not significantly different from natural habitats. These findings highlight the threat of agricultural expansions to large‐scale bee diversity due to systematic γ‐diversity decline. In addition, while both urbanization and agriculture lead to consistent declines in α‐diversity, their impacts on β‐ or γ‐diversity vary, highlighting the need to study the effects of land use change at multiple scales.

To ensure that climate action and biodiversity obligations are met, the rapid growth of the renewable energy industry must be accompanied by tools to monitor, protect and enhance the biodiversity surrounding renewable energy infrastructures. The United Nations System of Environmental Economic Accounting-Ecosystem Accounting (SEEA-EA) provides a statistical framework to measure and document positive and negative changes in ecosystem extent and quality. Using a spatially explicit approach, this framework can provide industries with a standardised, measurable, verifiable, and reportable approach to ecosystem management. However, accounting for biodiversity, particularly at smaller site-specific scales, is underdeveloped in the SEEA-EA. Here, we use the SEEA-EA to develop biodiversity-themed ecosystem extent and condition accounts for onshore windfarms and provide a management tool for operators, enabling them to understand the extent of the habitats present, and their ability to provide resources for biodiversity. We added a new step into the condition account process to facilitate the incorporation of variables for biodiversity. Application of the methodology highlighted considerable biodiversity potential of some habitats, particularly peatland, marsh, and freshwater systems. The spatially explicit methodology clearly identified locations where improved management could enhance biodiversity. Implementing the SEEA-EA framework is standardised and repeatable, and its flexibility allows for accounts to be built at site-scale for a variety of land-uses and habitats. The development of biodiversity-themed ecosystem accounts for the onshore wind energy industry demonstrates the utility of the SEEA-EA to inform local management decisions across a sector that is critical for climate change mitigation.

Motivation Pollinators play a crucial role in maintaining Earth's terrestrial biodiversity. However, rapid human-induced environmental changes are compromising the long-term persistence of plant-pollinator interactions. Unfortunately, we lack robust, generalisable data capturing how plant-pollinator communities are structured across space and time. Here, we present the EuPPollNet (European Plant-Pollinator Networks) database, a fully open European-level database containing harmonised taxonomic data on plant-pollinator interactions referenced in both space and time, along with other ecological variables of interest. In addition, we evaluate the taxonomic and sampling coverage of EuPPollNet, and summarise key structural properties in plant-pollinator networks. We believe EuPPollNet will stimulate research to address data gaps in plant-pollinator interactions and guide future efforts in conservation planning. Main Types of Variables Included EuPPollNet contains 1,162,109 interactions between plants and pollinators from 1864 distinct networks, which belong to 52 different studies distributed across 23 European countries. Information about sampling methodology, habitat type, biogeographic region and additional taxonomic rank information (i.e. order, family, genus and species) is also provided. Spatial Location and Grain The database contains 1214 different sampling locations from 13 different natural and anthropogenic habitats that fall in 7 different biogeographic regions. All records are geo-referenced and presented in the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS84). Time Period and Grain Species interaction data was collected between 2004 and 2021. Major Taxa and Level of Measurement The database contains interaction data at the species level for 94% of the records, including a total of 1411 plant and 2223 pollinator species. The database includes data on 6% of the European species of flowering plants, 34% of bees, 26% of butterflies and 33% of syrphid species at the European level. Software Format The database was built with R and is stored in ‘.rds’ and ‘.csv’ formats. Its construction is fully reproducible and can be accessed at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.14747448.

Pollinators help maintain functional landscapes and are sensitive to floral nutritional quality. Both proteins and lipids influence pollinator foraging, but the role of individual biochemical components in pollen remains unclear. We conducted an experiment comprising common garden plots of six plant species (Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Onagraceae, Boraginaceae, and Plantaginaceae). These plots were treated with low concentrations of agrochemicals, including fertilizer, herbicide, and a combination of both to induce intra-specific variation in floral chemistry. We recorded insect visitation to inflorescences over two years and eight sites in Dublin, Ireland. We analyzed the pollen amino acid and fatty acid content, quantifying the concentrations of 51 fatty acids and 17 amino acids of the six focal plant species across the four agrochemical treatments. We tested relationships between the pollen composition and the insect visitation matrix as well as an insect trait matrix including sociality, body size, nesting behavior, and whether the insect was a bee or hoverfly. We found: i) the agrochemical treatments did not affect the biochemical composition of the pollen; ii) there were many strong associations between fatty acids, amino acids, insect traits, and visitation; and iii) specific compounds with strong associations (montanic acid, cysteine, and proline) explained more of the variance in insect abundance (honeybees, bumble bees, and hoverflies) than the total amino acid or fatty acid concentrations in the pollen. Our results suggest it is important to evaluate the contribution of individual biochemical compounds in pollen to insect visitation, and also that different insect species respond to different pollen compounds.

Biodiversity in human-dominated landscapes is declining, but evidence-based conservation targets to guide international policies for such landscapes are lacking. We present a framework for informing habitat conservation policies based on the enhancement of habitat quantity and quality and define thresholds of habitat quantity at which it becomes effective to also prioritize habitat quality. We applied this framework to insect pollinators, an important part of agroecosystem biodiversity, by synthesizing 59 studies from 19 countries. Given low habitat quality, hoverflies had the lowest threshold at 6% semi-natural habitat cover, followed by solitary bees (16%), bumble bees (18%), and butterflies (37%). These figures represent minimum habitat thresholds in agricultural landscapes, but when habitat quantity is restricted, marked increases in quality are required to reach similar outcomes.

Insect pollinators play vital regulatory roles within ecosystems and provide humanity with essential services that support our health, wellbeing, and economies. Despite their importance, reported declines at regional and national levels have raised concerns over the continuation of such benefits. Island pollinator populations are of particular conservation interest as they may harbor lower genetic diversity due to restricted gene flow caused by geographical barriers, which may in turn influence local selective processes. In this study, we investigated the population structure and potential targets of selection within the genomes of a bumblebee subspecies, Bombus terrestris audax, native to the islands of Ireland and Great Britain. In particular, we compared the genomes of wild-caught populations from each island alongside representatives of other European subspecies and commercial imports to ascertain patterns of historical admixture. Our analysis identified a largely genetically distinct population of B. t. audax on the island of Ireland, with weak evidence of admixture. In addition, we find differential signatures of positive selection between the two island populations in genes associated with neurology and development, indicating potential local adaptation. Furthermore, we identified an extremely polymorphic region on chromosome 10 with evidence of shared haplotypes in both wild and commercial bees, which may represent long-standing genetic variation at the continental level or potential localized admixture between wild and commercial bees. Collectively, our findings inform on the genetic distinctiveness of these island bumblebees, emphasizing the applied need to genetically characterize natural populations to ensure the conservation of genetic resources-in the context of this study, by informing risk-assessment and management of commercial bumblebees. In addition, our study reinforces the utility of genomic approaches in the biomonitoring of isolated or regionally adapted insect pollinator populations, which will contribute towards the effective conservation of these ecologically vital organisms.

Pressures on honey bee health have substantially increased both colony mortality and beekeepers' costs for hive management across Europe. Although technological advances could offer cost-effective solutions to these challenges, there is little research into the incentives and barriers to technological adoption by beekeepers in Europe. Our study is the first to investigate beekeepers' willingness to adopt the Bee Health Card, a molecular diagnostic tool developed within the PoshBee EU project which can rapidly assess bee health by monitoring molecular changes in bees. The Bee Health Card, based on MALDI BeeTyping®, is currently on level six of the Technology Readiness Level scale, meaning that the technology has been demonstrated in relevant environments. Using an on-line survey from seven European countries, we show that beekeepers recognise the potential for the tool to improve colony health, and that targeted economic incentives, such as subsidises, may help reduce cost being a barrier to the adoption and frequent use of the tool. Based on the description of the tool, 43% of beekeepers appear to be moderately confident in the effectiveness of the Bee Health Card. This confidence could increase if the tool was easy to use and not time consuming, and a higher confidence could also contribute to raising the probability of accepting extra costs linked to it. We estimate that, in the worst-case scenario, the cost per single use of the Bee Health Card should be between €47-90 across a range of European countries, depending on the labour and postage costs. However, the monetary benefits in terms of honey production could exceed this. In order to successfully tackle colony health issues, it is recommended using the BHC five times per year, from the end to the beginning of winter. Finally, we discuss the knowledge needs for assessing beekeeper health tools in future research.

Alongside increases in renewable energy developments associated with climate change mitigation efforts, there has been increasing recognition of the role of biodiversity in mitigating and adapting to climate change. Environmental Impact Assessment Reports (EIARs) document potential impacts of proposed new developments on a broad range of environmental factors, including biodiversity, and propose actions to alleviate those impacts. More recently, addressing trade-offs between developments of infrastructure for climate mitigation and biodiversity impacts in EIARs is becoming increasingly important. However, biodiversity may be measured in many ways, impacts may be taxon-specific and there can be survey biases towards particular species and taxonomic groups. It is, therefore, important to consider what is included in EIARs, and to understand the extent to which the taxonomic focus of EIARs aligns with published scientific research evidence. Here, we systematically review both ecological surveys conducted in EIARs of granted windfarm applications in Ireland between 2000 and 2021 and the scientific literature examining the impacts of onshore windfarms on biodiversity. We found that EIARs in the early 2000s examined a considerably more diverse range of animal and plant groups than the scientific literature at that time. This divergence in focus diminished through time as both EIARs and the scientific literature captured a more diverse range of taxa. However, taxa and impacts with low prominence in the scientific literature were also surveyed less frequently in EIARs, highlighting that understudied taxa and biodiversity impacts are at risk of being underestimated or undetected at the development stage. Practical implication. We conclude that explicit comparison of the two-way link between scientific literature and EIARs can aid in identifying knowledge gaps and assessment of the broader impacts of renewable energy developments, helping both to inform appropriate mitigation for biodiversity impacts and to inform policymakers.

There are substantial concerns about impaired honey bee health and colony losses due to several poorly understood factors. We used MALDI profiling (MALDI BeeTyping®) analysis to investigate how some environmental and management factors under field conditions across Europe affected the honey bee haemolymph peptidome (all peptides in the circulatory fluid), as a profile of molecular markers representing the immune status of Apis mellifera. Honey bees were exposed to a range of environmental stressors in 128 agricultural sites across eight European countries in four biogeographic zones, with each country contributing eight sites each for two different cropping systems: oilseed rape (OSR) and apple (APP). The full haemolymph peptide profiles, including the presence and levels of three key immunity markers, namely the antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) Apidaecin, Abaecin and Defensin-1, allowed the honey bee responses to environmental variables to be discriminated by country, crop type and site. When considering just the AMPs, it was not possible to distinguish between countries by the prevalence of each AMP in the samples. However, it was possible to discriminate between countries on the amounts of the AMPs, with the Swedish samples in particular expressing high amounts of all AMPs. A machine learning model was developed to discriminate the haemolymphs of bees from APP and OSR sites. The model was 90.6 % accurate in identifying the crop type from the samples used to build the model. Overall, MALDI BeeTyping® of bee haemolymph represents a promising and cost-effective "blood test" for simultaneously monitoring dozens of peptide markers affected by environmental stressors at the landscape scale, thus providing policymakers with new diagnostic and regulatory tools for monitoring bee health.

Globally, pollinating insects face significant pressure, largely due to intensively managed agricultural systems. There has been considerable focus on the provision of resources for pollinators in agricultural landscapes, but without understanding how existing farmland habitats affect pollinators there is a risk these conservation actions could fail. The aim of this study was to explore the relationships between the quantity, diversity, and quality of on-farm habitats with pollinator communities. To meet this aim, pollinator, floral and habitat features were assessed at twenty-nine sites, encompassing both livestock and crop systems, at a range of farming intensities, in two regions of Ireland. Results showed that the three main taxonomic pollinator groups (hoverflies, social bees, and solitary bees) were inconsistent in their responses to habitat and environmental variables. Hoverflies were negatively associated with farms with increasing amounts of linear feature and fewer drainage ditches, whereas bumblebees were positively associated with crop farms and the number of grassy margins, drainage ditches and hedgerows at a site. Solitary bees were negatively associated with crop farms and positively associated with high floral species richness. At a species level, community analysis showed that within taxonomic groups, individual species responded differently to environmental variables. This study demonstrates that different farm types and habitat features impact pollinator groups differently. One-size does not fit all, thus on-farm conservation actions should be designed with knowledge of taxon-specific responses to maximise benefits. The quantity and diversity of essential habitats are important along with the quality of those features in terms of their capacity to provide sufficient resources for pollinators.