The rapid detection of exotic species is instrumental for their successful control and eradispiders not recorded in scientific literature for the region. From citizens photographs I identified 13 spiders that have not been previously recorded in the region. I determine six spiders preliminarily to species, i. the region, i. e., Mazax, Mastophora, Metacyrba, Microdipoena, Uloborus, and Ummidia. These findings represent the addition of the families Halonoproctidae, Cithaeronidae, and Symphytognathidae to the region. Citizen scientists often lack the knowledge to identify their photographed spiders; however, from their photographs I found a few more unrecorded spiders (13 vs. 8) than what arachnologists had published in the last 20 years. This shows that observations by citizen scientists may be an underutilized source of data that can increase and accelerate the rate of detection of previously unknown spiders to a region.

Xylem traumatic resin ducts (TRDs) in Douglas-fir form in response to mechanical injury, fire, and root pathogens, but it is unknown if these form at the stem in response to bark-beetle-associated fungi. Meanwhile, TRDs are rarely documented in lodgepole pine. In the southern Rocky Mountains, TRD formation in the two species from sterile (Control) and fungal inoculation treatments (Aggressive, Weak (Douglas-fir only)) were compared; predicting the following: (1) both trees would produce TRDs in response to fungal treatments; (2) in Douglas-fir, Aggressive treatment would promote denser and larger TRDs than Weak or Control treatments; and (3) interspecifically, Douglas-fir would produce a higher density of TRDs than lodgepole pine in Aggressive treatments. Two months post-treatment, the position of TRDs indicated these were only induced on all Douglas-fir treatments. Aggressive and Weak treatments had similar responses, except a second TRD line formed in two Douglas-fir Aggressive treatments. Douglas-fir produced >7× more resin ducts that were twice the size of those in lodgepole pine. Douglas-fir’s stronger induced response indicates better resistance traits against bark beetle fungal associate colonization. Understanding the characteristics of TRD produced in reaction to specific damage in Douglas-fir can improve past disturbance reconstructions and explain interspecific tree response differences conducive to bark beetle resistance.

Fungal and mite associates may drive changes in bark beetle populations, and mechanisms constraining beetle irruptions may be hidden in endemic populations. We characterized common fungi of endemic-level Jeffrey pine beetle (JPB) in western USA and analyzed their dissemination by JPB (maxillae and fecal pellet) and fungivorous mites to identify if endogenous regulation drove the population. We hypothesized that: (1) as in near-endemic mountain pine beetle populations, JPB's mutualistic fungus would either be less abundant in endemic than in non-endemic populations or that another fungus may be more prevalent; (2) JPB primarily transports its mutualistic fungus, while its fungivorous mites primarily transport another fungus, and (3) based on the prevalence of yeasts in bark beetle symbioses, that a mutualistic interaction with blue-stain fungi present in that system may exist. Grosmannia clavigera was the most frequent JPB symbiont; however, the new here reported antagonist, Ophiostoma minus, was second in frequency. As hypothesized, JPB mostly carried its mutualist fungus while another fungus (i.e., antagonistic) was mainly carried by mites, but no fungal transport was obligate. Furthermore, we found a novel mutualistic interaction between the yeast Kuraishia molischiana and G. clavigera which fostered a growth advantage at temperatures associated with beetle colonization.

Differences in defensive traits of tree species may predict why some conifers are susceptible to bark beetle-fungal complexes and others are not. A symbiotic fungus (Leptographium abietinum (Peck) M.J. Wingf.) associated with the tree-killing bark beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis Kirby) is phytopathogenic to host trees and may hasten tree decline during colonization by beetles, but defense responses of mature trees to the fungus have not been experimentally examined. To test the hypothesis that interspecific variation in spruce resistance is explained by defense traits we compared constitutive (bark thickness and constitutive resin ducts) and induced defenses (resin flow, monoterpene composition, concentration, phloem lesion formation and traumatic resin ducts) between two sympatric spruces: Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii Parry ex Engelm.-a susceptible host) and blue spruce (Picea pungens Engelm.-a resistant host) in response to fungal inoculation. Four central findings emerged: (i) blue spruce has thicker outer bark and thinner phloem than Engelmann spruce, which may restrict fungal access to phloem and result in less beetle-available resource overall; (ii) both spruce species induce monoterpenes in response to inoculation but blue spruce has higher constitutive monoterpene levels, induces monoterpenes more rapidly, and induces higher concentrations over a period of time consistent with spruce beetle attack duration; (iii) Engelmann and blue spruce differed in the monoterpenes they upregulated in response to fungal inoculation: blue spruce upregulated alpha-pinene, terpinolene and gamma-terpinene, but Engelmann spruce upregulated 3-carene and linalool; and (iv) blue spruce has a higher frequency of constitutive resin ducts and produces more traumatic resin ducts in annual growth increments than Engelmann spruce, though Engelmann spruce produces more resin following aseptic wounding or fungal inoculation. These findings suggest that higher constitutive resin duct densities and monoterpene concentrations, as well as the ability to rapidly induce specific monoterpenes in response to L. abietinum inoculation, are phenotypic traits associated with hosts resistant to spruce beetle colonization.

Bark beetles and their associated fungi kill trees readily, but we often ignore which organism is the leading cause of tree mortality. While phloem feeding beetles inhibit photosynthate transport, their associated fungi block the tracheids disrupting transpiration. Within the family Pinaceae, knowledge of tree physiological decline following bark beetle and associated fungi colonization is limited to the genus Pinus. Here we investigate the physiological response of Pseudotsuga (P. menziesii) to bark beetles or its fungi. We hypothesized that fungi block water transport in Douglas-fir causing faster mortality than by bark beetle activity alone. We successfully lured Douglas-fir beetle to attack a subset of trees in our experimental area using pheromones and compared Beetle-Killed trees with mechanically Girdled, and Control trees. During spring snowmelt, nine months after treatments were applied, Control, Girdled, and five trees that Survived beetle attack had higher transpiration rates and less negative pre-dawn water potential than five Beetle-Killed trees. Declines in transpiration and leaf water potential in our Beetle-Killed trees occurred much earlier than those in studies of beetle-attacked lodgepole pines, suggesting stronger defensive traits in Douglas-fir. Our data suggest that, as in pines, bark beetle-associated fungi are the leading cause of mortality in Douglas-fir beetle-attacked trees.

Research Highlights: Atypical and poorly understood attacks byDendroctonus rufipennis(Kirby) toPinus contortaDoug. ex Loudon were detected in the southern Rocky Mountains (SRM). The phenomenon is confirmed across all examined area. Its reproduction is described for the first time as well as the first attacks ofD. adjunctusBlandf. in that host. Improved detection and diagnostics ofD. rufipenniswill allow a simpler, and efficient identification of the species. It will improve the detection capacity by pest detection specialists and entomologists, which will increase our understanding of the phenomena within and beyond the known range. Background and Objectives: In addition toD. ponderosaeHopk. otherDendroctonusspecies, sometimes together, attackedP. contortathat grew intermixed withPicea engelmanniiin the SRM' subalpine forest. The identification of these beetles was difficult. The goal was to improve the detection and identification of the species from similarDendroctonusspp. attacking that host and to uncover biological facts about the phenomena. Materials and Methods:DendroctonusattackingP. contortawere collected along the entire SRM, their attack signs and behavior were recorded. These characteristics were revised from those in the literature and new characters were introduced and tested. Results: The identification ofDendroctonusbark beetles attackingP. contortain the SRM was improved using revised and new characters including attack signs, attack behavior, and adult beetle characters. An improved identification key couplet is presented to effectively distinguishD. murrayanaefromD. rufipennis. Conclusions: Simplified insect identifications that are both accessible to users with different levels of expertise and are based on insect characters, their attack pattern, and signs, like the present, improve detection of insects of interest. Efficient insect detections allow a better understanding of the capabilities they have and the impact they cause to the woodland ecosystems we study, protect, and manage around the globe.

The mountain pine beetle, Dendroctonus ponderosae (Coleoptera: Scolytinae), is an economically important bark beetle species with a wide geographic range spanning from the southwestern United States into northern Canada. This beetle causes extensive tree mortality to 13 pine species. Mites (Acari) are common and abundant symbionts of mountain beetles that may influence their fitness through positive and negative interactions. We present a unique assessment of the mite associates of mountain pine beetles using measures of alpha and beta diversity. We sampled phoretic mites from five beetle populations: Arizona, Colorado, South Dakota, Utah (USA), and Alberta (Canada) that varied in host tree species, local climate, and beetle population level. We collected 4848 mites from 8 genera and 12 species. Fifty to seventy percent of beetles carried mites in flight with the highest mite loads occurring in middle and southern populations; decreasing in northern populations. Mite assemblages (i.e., both richness and composition) varied along a south to north latitudinal gradient and were driven by species turnover (i.e., species replacement). Differences in mite composition increased with distance between populations. We discuss climatic variation, environmental filtering, and host tree differences as factors that could affect differences in mite composition between beetle populations and discuss implications for functional shifts. Our results could represent a model for estimating diversity patterns of mite symbionts associated with other major insect pests in coniferous forest systems.

The mite and fungal biota associated with the mountain pine beetle (MPB) (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopk.) may not be stable throughout an irruptive event. In congeneric beetles, variations in the frequency of their associated organisms affect population trends and similar effects may occur in MPB. We studied fungi and mite trends in a declining irruptive MPB population as it attacked three different pine hosts in the Colorado Front Range. During the study, we found two new associates including one biologically relevant mite and one beneficial blue-stain fungus. Fungi hyperphoretic on mites were also documented. This included beneficial and potentially detrimental species to the MPB. The frequency of several organisms varied between some years or pine hosts but not within male or female beetles. A large increase of Trichouropoda sp. and T. ips mites trended inversely with the declining beetle population, while a decrease in the beneficial blue-stain fungi trended similarly to the declining beetle population. We discuss the interactions and potential effects of phoretic biota in relation to (1) the MPB associates’ population trends, (2) the MPB incursions into cooler areas, and (3) the redundancy of blue-stain fungi carried by the MPB holobiont. These findings increase our knowledge of the mechanisms that influence MPB populations.

We studied blue-stain fungi (Ophiostomataceae: Ophiostomatales) of mountain pine beetle in declining epidemic populations affecting three pine species in Colorado. Using morphological and molecular characterizations, we determined the presence of the mutualist L. longiclavatum in the southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, where it was as common as the warm temperature adapted O. montium within the insect's specialized maxillary mycangium. The species was more prevalent than its "sibling species" G. clavigera which is the the common mycangial mutualist documented in USA populations. Findings were made during a two-year period including the warmest year on record in the state (i. e., 2012). Other studies have indicated that L. longiclavatum is more frequent in insect populations occurring in the northern Canadian Rockies diminishing in southern areas of that mountain range, suggesting latitude influences the frequency of this fungal mutualists, due to its better cool temperature tolerances. Our findings suggest Colorado isolates may have a greater tolerance of warmer temperatures than those from the north. These findings also increase our knowledge about the species distribution and the in situ conditions permissive of its occurrence in areas south of the Canadian Rockies.

We review the West Indian species of Arachnocoris, a genus of spider-web dwelling kleptoparasitic nabids.We recognize five species: A. berytoides Uhler from Grenada, A. darlingtoni n. sp.from Hispaniola, A. karukerae Lopez-Moncet from Guadeloupe, A. portoricensis n. sp.from Puerto Rico, and A. trinitatis Bergroth from Trinidad.West Indian Arachnocoris antennal and profemoral color banding patterns are useful diagnostic characters and may have evolved to mimic their spider hosts, which are often island endemic spiders in the family Pholcidae.We provide a simplified and illustrated key to the species based on external characters.A catalog for the 16 recognized species of Arachnocoris is presented.

The Neotropical genus, Arachnocoris Scott groups thirteen species of specialized spider web-inhabiting damsel bugs (Nabidae) distributed from Panama to Brazil and the West Indies.We present new information on the web behavior of A. berytoides Uhler from Puerto Rico.Three different life stages were observed on the spider webs, suggesting this species likely depends on that microhabitat for all its life history stages.In addition to the modified tarsi described by Myers, we describe mimetic adaptations that may help it live a life in close association with its predacious host.Species in this genus are facultative kleptoparasites that are highly dependent on spider webs for obtaining their food.In Puerto Rico, Arachnocoris berytoides perhaps mimics multiple models through several types of mimicry including: Aposematic, Aggressive, Batesian-Wallacean, Wicklerian-Eisnerian, and possibly Mullerian-Batesian mimicry.An observation in which a male watched as females approach a food item might represent a type of mate guarding behavior not previously described in this genus.

The New World species of the genus Hylurgops LeConte are revised and Hylurgops subcostulatus Mannerheim is transferred to the new genus Pachysquamus. A revised key to the tribe Hylastini which can be used for the world fauna is presented to include Pachysquamus. Our studies suggest that the Nearctic species H. knausi Swaine is a valid taxon, distinguishable from the Mesoamerican H. planirostris Chapuis. The subspecies H. rugipennis rugipennis Mannerheim and H. r. pinifex Fitch are considered distinct species. A key to Hylurgops species of the New World is provided to accommodate the restituted species. Due to their broadly separated procoxae the Palearctic species H. bonvouloiri and H. inouyei do not agree with the genus Hylurgops.

During its life cycle, the tree-killing mountain pine beetle Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins interacts with phoretic organisms such as mites, nematodes, fungi, and bacteria. The types of associations these organisms establish with the mountain pine beetle (MPB) vary from mutualistic to antagonistic. The most studied of these interactions are those between beetle and fungi. The least studied are interactions with bacteria, but these have received increased attention recently. Nematodes remain little studied. We reviewed the significant literature pertaining to MPB phoronts. A number of potentially important interactions and contributions resulting from associations between MPB and its phoronts are discussed. A wealth of literature exists on this topic, yet many questions remain unanswered, and the effects of some phoronts on population levels remain unexplored.

An outbreak of the Douglas-fir tussock moth, Orgyia pseudotsugata McDunnough, occurred in the South Platte River drainage on the Pike-San Isabel National Forest in the Colorado Front Range attacking Douglas-fir, Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco. Stocking levels, species composition, and tree size in heavily and lightly defoliated stands were similar. Douglas-fir tussock moth defoliation resulted in significant Douglas-fir mortality in the heavily defoliated stands, leading to a change in dominance to ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa Lawson. Douglas-fir beetle, Dendroctonus pseudotsuqae Hopkins, populations increased following the defoliation event but caused less mortality, and did not differ between heavily and lightly defoliated stands. Douglas-fir tussock moth-related mortality was greatest in trees less than 15 cm dbh (diameter at 1.4 m above the ground) that grew in suppressed and intermediate canopy positions. Douglas-fir beetle-related mortality was greatest in trees larger than 15 cm dbh that grew in the dominant and co-dominant crown positions. Although both insects utilize Douglas-fir as its primary host, stand response to infestation is different. The extensive outbreak of the Douglas-fir tussock moth followed by Douglas-fir beetle activity may be associated with a legacy of increased host type growing in overstocked conditions as a result of fire exclusion.

In any given ecosystem there exist a dynamic and complex mixture of volatile chemicals which together with visual and auditory signals that affect the behavior of the different insects living in their vicinity. Particular combinations and concentrations of these signals have been found to function as cues to different behavior responses of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) species. The understanding of these factors as they occur in nature is utilized to help predict models of spread and colonization and to help understand and manage these important pests. In this review I will present some of the research involving the study of these signals in the understanding of the response behavior by bark beetles of the genus Dendroctonus Erichson in North America north of Mexico. I will review the important role of olfaction in the response and behavior of these species and how environmental stress conditions mediate their release into their ecosystem. The role of attractants of mycological origin has also been mentioned by researchers and will also be mentioned. Semiochemicals synthesized by the beetles will be mentioned including: sex and aggregations as well as anti-aggregation pheromones, and the behavioral effects on the genus will be presented.