Preterm birth is a risk factor for language difficulties. To better understand the language development of preterm-born infants, the current study investigated the concurrent associations between parent-infant conversations and the development of 22 preterm-born and 25 term-born infants at 2 years of age. Conversations occurring during mother/father-infant free-play interactions were analyzed to characterize features of parental speech (volubility, speech rate, lexical diversity, and morphosyntactic complexity) and parent-infant exchanges (parent responsiveness, turn-taking, and conversational balance). The infants' language development (receptive communication and expressive communication) and non-language development (cognitive, social-emotional, and executive function) was assessed using standardized measures. Parent-infant conversations were associated with both language and non-language development. This suggests that parent-infant conversations may support language development directly and/or through advancing non-language skills that could promote language learning. The associations between parent-infant conversations and development varied as a function of birth status (preterm or term). This finding may signal the operation of different developmental processes within preterm-and term-born groups. Finally, infant development was differentially associated with mother-infant and father-infant conversations. This may point to the distinct contributions made by mothers and fathers to the development of both preterm-and term-born infants. To optimize language outcomes, these findings indicate that families should be guided to tailor parent-infant conversations to the unique developmental needs and processes of preterm-born infants. Families should also be supported to leverage the distinct developmental contributions of mothers and fathers. Future recommendations are made regarding how to investigate the proposed preterm-term differences in language development processes and the differential developmental contribution of mothers and fathers.(c) 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/ licenses/by/4.0/).

Children’s speech is influenced by the speech they hear, in particular by the parental speech addressed directly to them. The aim of this study was to analyse toddlers’ speech with their parents and to investigate the influence of specific characteristics of child-directed speech on child speech in real time during mother–child and father–child dyadic interactions. Eighty-four children ( M = 24.11 months, SD = 1.37, 42 girls) and their parents were video-recorded in dyadic freeplay. Parent and child speech was compared on measures of quantity (number of words), quality (vocabulary diversity, proportion, and composition of nouns/verbs) and productivity or complexity. Overall findings reveal very similar speech produced by mothers and fathers with their toddlers and by toddlers with each parent, with the exception of vocabulary diversity patterns. Furthermore, the child-directed speech of mothers and fathers was differently associated with child speech in interaction. Findings suggest that children may be exposed to different lexical sets by mother and father and there may be added value for the child of engaging in separate dyadic interactions with mother and father. Implications for research include sampling child speech across contexts and conversational partners.

This study investigates whether parental supportive (following) and intrusive (redirecting child’s attention) verbal directives are influenced by parent gender and birth status, and whether any associations between parental supportive/intrusive directives and developmental outcomes are moderated by birth status. Seventeen preterm and 31 full-term toddlers took part with both parents. Parental directives were coded using transcriptions of dyadic free-play interactions. Toddlers’ cognitive, language, and social-emotional skills were assessed via the Bayley-III scales and executive function skills were measured via parental report. 2 × 2 mixed design ANOVAs showed no significant effect of parent gender, birth status, or interaction, on parental directives. Moderation analyses demonstrated significant associations between fathers’, but not mothers’, intrusive directives and toddlers’ cognitive and expressive language scores for preterm, but not full-term, toddlers. Although parents of preterm and full-term toddlers used similar supportive/intrusive directives, fathers of preterm toddlers who exhibited poorer expressive language and cognitive skills used more intrusive directives.

Purpose: To investigate the language environments experienced by preterm-born infants, this study compared the linguistic and interactive features of parent–infant conversations involving 2-year-old preterm- and term-born infants. The study also explored how mother–infant and father–infant conversations may be differentially affected by preterm/term birth status. Method: Twenty-two preterm-born (< 37 weeks' gestation) and 25 term-born (≥ 37 weeks' gestation) 2-year-old infants engaged in dyadic mother/father–infant free-play interactions that were transcribed to quantify the linguistic (parental volubility, speech rate, lexical diversity, and morphosyntactic complexity) and interactive (infant/parent responsiveness, turn-taking, and conversational balance) features of parent–infant conversations. Language, cognitive, socioemotional, and executive function skills were assessed via standardized tools. Results: Compared to the term group, the preterm group was characterized by lower maternal speech rate, parental lexical diversity, and parent–infant turn-taking, as well as greater mother–infant conversational balance. The preterm group presented poorer language and executive function skills when compared to the term group. Conclusions: Both similarities and differences exist between the language environments of preterm and term groups. Similarities may be due to the partial developmental catch-up of preterm-born infants (cognitive and socioemotional skills) and parental scaffolding. Differences may partly reflect a parental adaptation to the language and executive function difficulties of preterm-born infants. These findings suggest that researchers/clinicians should appraise the language environment with respect to the unique developmental needs of preterm/term-born infants. Future research directions are provided to advance a more holistic characterization of the language environment and a deeper understanding of the developmental significance of preterm–term differences in such environments. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.25021931

Purpose: To understand how best to assess the language abilities of pretermborn children, this study: (a) compared pretermand term-born children's language skills using standardized testing and language sample analysis (LSA), (b) investigated how executive function skills and the language sampling context respectively affect standardized test and LSA scores, and (c) examined the pattern of associations between standardized test and LSA scores among pre- term-/term-born groups. Method: Twenty-five term-born and 23 preterm-born 2-year-old singletons were administered the language scales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-Third Edition (receptive communication, expressive communication, language composite scores). Parent-child free-play recordings were used to quantify the (para)linguistic features of the children's speech. Executive function was measured via parent report. Results: The preterm-born group obtained significantly lower scores than the term-born group on all Bayley language measures (though differences were not consistently observed when using cutoff scores). Few preterm-term differences in LSA measures were found. The preterm-term differences in Bayley scores were not explained by between-group differences in executive function. Some preterm-term differences in LSA scores were moderated by the language sampling context. The pretermand term-born groups exhibited different patterns of Bayley-LSA correlations. Conclusions: Preterm language difficulties were more apparent on standardized test than LSA scores. Nonetheless, the Bayley-LSA correlations indicate that poor test performance (linked with preterm birth) is associated with functional communication difficulties. The discussion outlines the complementary utility of standardized tests and LSA while acknowledging the limited utility of cutoff scores and the confounding influence of the language sampling context. Supplemental Material: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26142661

The present study investigates individual differences in preterm children’s language skills in relation to neonatal risk and Joint Attention (JA) skills. Fifty-four mother-child (Mchildage=37.89 months; SD=11.51) and 35 father-child (Mchildage=36.75 months; SD=11.86) dyads participated in the study. Neonatal risk was assessed using medical reports/parental questionnaires. JA characteristics (frequency, duration, type of JA, agent of initiation and termination, missed attempts) were coded moment-by-moment during free-play interactions with mothers and fathers, separately. Language outcomes were measured via the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-3rd Edition and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-4th Edition. Preterm children with lower neonatal risk scores and who had higher proportions of Coordinated JA with their mothers and fathers achieved higher language scores. Hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that neonatal risk and Coordinated JA with mothers and fathers (separately) explained unique variance in preterm children’s language outcomes.

The quality of the interparental relationship bears important implications for children’s socioemotional development. Given evidence that relationship satisfaction among parents tends to decline over time this study examined how change in parents’ relationship satisfaction from nine-months-old until nine-years-old related to children’s socioemotional difficulties at nine-years-old. Participants were 2074 mothers, fathers, and their child (55.1% male) recruited through random sampling of the Child Benefit Registrar by Growing Up in Ireland cohort study. Mothers ranged in age from 18 to 40 years ( M = 31.06, SD = 4.70) and fathers ranged in age from 18 to 60 years ( M = 33.50, SD = 5.54). Mothers and fathers completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale at nine-months-old and at nine-years-old whereas child socioemotional development was assessed via teacher report on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire at nine-years-old. Residualised change analysis indicated that both parents experienced declines in relationship satisfaction from nine-months-old until nine- years-old. However, in families where initial levels of relationship satisfaction were high, there was no significant association between decline in satisfaction and child socioemotional difficulties. Conversely, in couples where initial levels of satisfaction were low, mothers, but not fathers, who experienced further declines had female, but not male, children with more socioemotional difficulties at nine years ( β = −0.22, p = 0.01; R 2 = 0.15, F = 2.31, p = 0.02). These findings highlight the need for carefully tailored interventions aimed at promoting couple relationship satisfaction during transition to parenthood such that the negative impact on children of any decline experienced over time can be mitigated.

While the association between shared book reading (SBR) and child language development is well documented, there has been less focus on how book characteristics may differentially elicit parents' language input and hence differentially relate to children's language skills during this activity. Moreover, despite the positive and unique role that fathers have been shown to play for children's language, the father-child SBR evidence base is small. Accordingly, the present study examined variation in father and child language quantity, quality, complexity, and function during SBR with text-based and wordless picture books and explored associations between fathers' language and children's language during these episodes. Participants were 46 father-child dyads (20 females). Fathers' mean age was 38.74 years (SD = 5.74), and children's mean age was 37.89 months (SD = 2.71). Findings indicate that fathers in the text-book condition produced significantly greater language quality, extended the topic more, and produced more conversational utterances but described and labeled pictures less than fathers in the wordless picture book condition. Fathers' language during both SBR episodes showed differential links with child's language and may suggest that fathers were fine-tuning their language in accordance with their child's language skills (effect sizes ranged from r = .45 to r = .78). It is possible that variation in book content may encourage different types of learning with distinct effects on different domains of child language. Should future research replicate such differential relations, findings may inform caretakers and early childhood interventions with the aim of promoting children's books tailored to specific language areas of interest.

Multiple factors including the child's non-linguistic characteristics and caregiving environment can affect language development. Since preterm birth (<37 weeks’ gestation) can negatively affect language development, this study used path analysis to investigate whether the influence of preterm birth on expressive language development at 3 and 5 years of age is mediated by a child's non-linguistic characteristics (temperament and cognitive, motor, and social-personal abilities), caregiving environment (maternal and paternal stress and depression, mother-child and father-child relationship quality), and interactions between these domains. These analyses were conducted using three waves of data (ages: 9 months, 3 years, 5 years) on 8,712 children (4,300 female; 535 preterm) from a nationally-representative longitudinal study in Ireland. Preterm birth was indirectly (but not directly) associated with expressive language at 3 years of age via cognitive and social-personal abilities (but not motor abilities, mother-child relationship quality, or father-child relationship quality) at 9 months. There was no direct or indirect effect of preterm birth on expressive language at 5 years of age. Preterm birth negatively affected mother-child and father-child relationship quality at 3 years via fussy-difficult temperament and mother's/father's stress (but not depression) at 9 months. These findings are discussed with reference to international standards for neonatal care, including the need for long-term developmental monitoring of children born preterm by multidisciplinary healthcare teams, alongside parental supports promoting mental health and confidence in caregiving tasks. Future study recommendations are made to expand the tested models in line with family systems perspectives.

Joint Attention (JA) in parent-infant interaction has been demon-strated to contribute to infants' language outcomes. A limited number of studies have investigated the characteristics of JA epi-sodes during parent-toddler interaction in relation to toddlers' lan-guage development. The majority of these studies were conducted with mothers, whereas JA with fathers remains understudied. The current study investigated JA episodes during interactions with mothers and fathers separately as well as longitudinal associations with child language outcomes. A total of 31 toddlers (18 girls) and their mothers and fathers participated in the study at ages 2 years (M = 24.07 months, SD = 1.45) and 3 years (M = 37.44 months, SD = 1.72). JA episodes were observed during free play interactions at age 2 and were coded microanalytically; receptive and expres-sive language skills were assessed by Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-Third Edition at ages 2 and 3. No significant differences in JA episodes were found between mother-toddler and father-toddler dyads. Whereas JA characteristics with mothers were not found to be significantly associated with toddlers' lan-guage outcomes, multiple linear regression analyses showed that paternal education and parent-followed JA episodes during father-toddler interaction at age 2 explained a significant amount of variance in toddlers' expressive language skills at age 3. Findings suggest that JA episodes during interactions with fathers might benefit toddlers' expressive language development. (c) 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

The current study investigates Joint Attention (JA) characteristics (duration, frequency, source of initiation, type of JA, agent of termination, missed and unsuccessful episodes) in preterm and full-term toddlers’ interactions with their mothers and fathers, separately. Thirty-one singleton full-term (Mage = 24.07 months, SD = 1.45; 13 boys) and 17 singleton preterm toddlers (Madjustedage = 24.72 months, SD = 3.39; 12 boys) participated in the study with both parents. JA episodes were examined during dyadic five-minute free play sessions, were coded second-by-second, and were analysed using two-way mixed ANOVAs. Although the total amount of time spent in JA was not significantly different between the preterm and the full-term groups, JA episodes were more frequent, specifically supported JA episodes, and were more often terminated by the child during parent-preterm toddler interactions. Moreover, preterm toddlers missed their fathers’ attempts for JA more often than their mothers’ and more often than full-term toddlers missed their fathers’ and mothers’ bids for JA. Further, regardless of the birth status, toddlers initiated more JA with mothers than fathers, and fathers redirected their child’s attention to initiate JA more than mothers. Findings indicate that preterm toddlers may struggle to respond to JA bids, especially with their fathers, and to sustain their attention on a specific object or event during interactions. Preterm toddlers may need more support to engage in JA relative to their full-term peers, and redirecting attention strategy may not be optimal for them. Also, toddlers’ JA interactions may be different with their mothers and fathers. Findings contribute to the literature by demonstrating preterm toddlers’ JA characteristics with both parents compared to full-term toddlers at age two.

Children's literacy and numeracy skills are fundamental for early academic performance and later academic success, mental health, and employment prospects in adulthood. Given that parents play a key role in promoting child development, identifying early parenting behaviors that predict literacy and numeracy skills is a research imperative. Emerging evidence suggests that parental use of decontextualized language (DL)-talk that requires cognitive abstraction and transcends the here and now-predicts children's literacy skills. However, its relation to numeracy remains underexplored. Accordingly, the current study examined how DL during interaction with children in infancy (T1) and preschool years (T2) relates to child literacy and numeracy in middle childhood (T3). Participants were 26 Irish mother-father-child triads (16 female children). At T1 and T2, participants engaged in 5-min interactions that were coded for DL. At T3, child literacy and numeracy were assessed using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition and teacher report of child scores on national standardized tests. Controlling for child age and contextualized utterances, child reading in middle childhood was negatively related to maternal and child DL in infancy but was positively related to DL during preschool years, suggesting that the benefits of DL may become apparent later in development. Mothers', fathers', and children's DL during preschool years was also positively linked with child numeracy in middle childhood. Thus, embedding DL in conversation with children may have positive domain-specific and cross-domain effects on children's literacy and numeracy performance. Findings provide incentive for future research to examine relations between DL and children's school performance across a wider range of developmental domains.

Background: Early parent-child interactions have a critical impact on the developmental outcomes of the child. It has been reported that infants with a family history of autism and their parents may engage in different patterns of behaviours during interaction compared to those without a family history of autism. This study investigated the association of parent-child interactions with child developmental outcomes of those with typical and elevated likelihood of autism.Method: This longitudinal study investigated the relationship between global attributes of parent -child interaction and the developmental outcomes of infant siblings with elevated likelihood (EL: n = 29) or typical likelihood (TL: n = 39) of developing autism. Parent-child interactions were recorded during a session of free-play when the infants were six months of age. Developmental assessments were carried out when the children were 12 and 24 months of age.Results: The intensity of mutuality was significantly higher in the TL group than in the EL group, and developmental outcomes were poorer in the EL group when compared to the TL group. Positive associations between parent-child interaction scores at six months and developmental outcomes at 12 months were observed only in the TL group. However, in the EL group, higher levels of infant positive affect and attentiveness paid to the caregiver is associated with lower autism symptoms. Due to the sample size and design of the study, the findings must be viewed as indicative.Conclusion: This preliminary investigation demonstrated differences in the association between parent-child interaction quality and developmental outcomes for children with typical and elevated likelihood for autism. Future studies should combine micro-analytic and macro-analytic approaches to parent-child interaction to further examine the nature of this relationship.

This study examined whether children's formal and informal home literacy (HLE) and home numeracy (HNE) environments at 3 years old demonstrated domain-specific, and cross-domain effects on children's academic performance at 5 and 9 years old. Participants were 7,110 children (49.4% male; 84.4% Irish), recruited between 2007 and 2008 in Ireland. Structural equation modeling revealed that only the informal HLE and HNE demonstrated both domain-specific and cross-domain positive effects on children's language and numeracy outcomes but not on socioemotional outcomes, at 5 and 9 years old. Effect sizes ranged from small (β = 0.020) to moderate (β = 0.209). These results suggest that even casual cognitively stimulating activities that do not directly focus on active teaching may benefit children's educational outcomes. Findings bear implications for cost-effective interventions with far-reaching, and enduring, effects across multiple child outcomes. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

The aim of this study was to elucidate the interactive and temporal features of conversational turn-taking during father-child and mother-child play and investigate associations with children’s cognitive and language abilities. Eighty typically developing two-year-olds (M = 24.06 months, SD = 1.39) and their biological mothers and fathers took part in the current study which consisted of a single visit to an Infant and Child Lab. Parent-child conversational turn-taking was measured from dyadic structured play interactions, as well as parents’ verbal turn-taking behaviours including length of turn, questions, and contingent responsiveness. Child language and cognitive skills were directly assessed using standardised measures. Results indicated that there was greater balance in conversational turn-taking during father-child play. However, mothers were more responsive to their child’s vocalisations during interaction. Mothers’ and fathers’ use of questions effectively scaffolded children’s participation in conversation. Finally, controlling for mother-child conversational turn-taking, father-child conversational turn-taking did not account for any unique variance in child cognitive skills. Regression analyses failed to demonstrate predictive associations between parent-child conversational turn-taking and child language skills. These findings present new insights into the dynamics of mother-child and father-child conversational turn-taking during play as well as the nature of the contribution of father-child linguistic exchanges to child development.

This observational study compares the child directed speech (CDS) of mothers and fathers to toddlers in the context of dyadic and triadic interaction. Further the influence of observed co-parenting dynam-ics on parental triadic speech and associations with child language are explored. Seventy-three toddlers ( M = 24.1 months, SD = 1.37; 37 girls) and their parents were recorded in dyadic and triadic free play in a laboratory setting. All speech from the interactions was transcribed and analyzed for quantitative and qualitative features. Child language ability was measured using the Bayley Scales. Videos of triadic interactions were coded for co-parenting quality. Only fathers' dyadic CDS was associated with child lan-guage in dyadic interaction. No aspect of mothers' dyadic CDS or of mothers' or fathers' CDS in triadic interaction was associated with child language in interaction. Fathers', but not mothers', vocabulary in triadic interaction was associated with supportive co-parenting. Fathers may be more influenced by co-parenting dynamics than mothers. Triadic interaction may facilitate different aspects of child language development. (c) 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ )

This study examined the associations between perceived and observed coparenting and toddlers' adaptive functioning. Seventy-seven typically developing toddlers aged between 21 and 27 months and their biological parents residing in Ireland participated in the study. Participating families were Caucasian and English speaking. Parents' perceived coparental relationship was assessed via self-report. In addition, coparenting dynamics were observed during triadic free-play and structured-play tasks. Mothers reported on their toddlers' adaptive functioning. Results indicated a negative association between undermining coparenting and toddlers' social and communication adaptive skills. Findings from the current study highlight the critical role played by triadic family processes in young children's development. Highlights This study examined associations between the coparenting relationship and toddlers' adaptive functioning. The coparenting relationship was assessed via parental self-reports and observations during triadic family play interactions. Toddlers' adaptive functioning was assessed using maternal reports. Findings indicated a negative relationship between undermining coparenting and toddlers' adaptive skills. The coparenting relationship is foundational to young children's development. More research in this area is required to disentangle the various pathways by which this family sub-system can influence toddlers' developmental outcomes. This can help in future intervention planning for enhancing the coparenting relationship.

This study examined the roles of parental gender and context in the communicative functions of parents' child-directed speech. Seventy three families with toddlers participated in the study. Dyadic and triadic parent-toddler interactions were videotaped during structured play activities. Results indicated context-dependent variability in parents' facilitative speech and gentle guidance. Parental gender effects were observed in parents' directive speech but no gender or contextual effects were observed in parents' referential speech. Results suggest the need for a closer examination of parental gender and contextual factors related to parents' speech functions.

BACKGROUND:Antenatal depression is emerging as a potential risk factor for lower maternal sensitivity during postnatal mother-infant interactions. The present study investigated the relationship between both antenatal and postnatal depression and features of infant directed speech, a key indicator of maternal sensitivity during the first postnatal year.METHODS:Pregnant women with either a clinical diagnosis of Major Depressive disorder (MDD; n = 20) or a history of MDD (n = 26) and a control group (n = 34) were recruited to the study and followed up at two, six and twelve months postpartum. A free-play mother-infant interaction was recorded at each time-point and the lexical and syntactic complexity of the mothers' speech was measured from the transcript.RESULTS:No significant group differences were observed at either two, six or twelve months. However, mediation analyses indicated that antenatal depression was indirectly associated with maternal syntactic complexity at two and twelve months through concurrent maternal depression scores.LIMITATIONS:The findings of this study are limited by its small sample size. The sample also comprised predominantly well-resourced women which limits the generalisability of the findings to wider or less advantaged populations.CONCLUSIONS:This study contributes to the emerging evidence base concerning the impact of antenatal depression and postnatal depression on early mother-infant interactive behaviour, specifically infant-directed speech. These findings further highlight the importance of identifying women with antenatal depression in order to support them to engage in therapeutic interventions at the earliest possible opportunity.