Water extraction and climate change are altering the availability of surface water globally, thereby contributing to amphibian population declines. The managed delivery of water to benefit environmental values (environmental watering) is a promising conservation technique that can support amphibian recruitment and maintain viable populations. Environmental water can be delivered in various spatial patterns and with different frequencies, but comparing the effectiveness of competing strategies is complicated by variable and interactive environmental processes. We built a spatially explicit, stochastic, hydroecological metapopulation model to compare the effects of five environmental-watering scenarios on the probability of persistence of threatened southern bell frogs (Litoria raniformis) in a major river reach in southern Australia. We compared a no-intervention control to two managed watering frequencies (moderate and frequent) delivered in two spatial designs (managed wetlands grouped or spread across the reach). More frequent water provision to intervention sites improved the reach-wide (metapopulation) probability of persistence, and spreading intervention sites across the reach improved persistence more than grouping intervention sites together. When re-examined under severe drought conditions, L. raniformis had a 0.04 probability of persistence without intervention, which improved to 0.56 with high watering frequency. Model-guided environmental water provision can improve reach-wide persistence of amphibian metapopulations by guiding spatial and temporal delivery patterns to reduce the risk of extinction.

The regulation of river systems alters hydrodynamics and often reduces lateral connectivity between river channels and floodplains. For taxa such as frogs that rely on floodplain wetlands to complete their life cycle, decreasing inundation frequency can reduce recruitment and increase the probability of local extinction. We virtually reconstructed the inundation patterns of wetlands under natural and regulated flow conditions and built stochastic population models to quantify the probability of local extinction under different inundation scenarios. Specifically, we explored the interplay of habitat size, inundation frequency, and successive dry years on the local extinction probability of the threatened southern bell frog Litoria raniformis in the Murray River floodplains of South Australia. We hypothesized that the changes to wetland inundation resulting from river regulation are driving L. raniformis declines in this semiarid system. Regulation has reduced the inundation frequency of essential habitats below critical thresholds for the persistence of many fresh water-dependent species. Successive dry years raise the probability of local extinction, and these effects are strongest in smaller wetlands. Larger wetlands and those with more frequent average inundation are less susceptible to these effects. Elucidating these trends informs the prioritization of intervention sites and the frequency of conservation interventions. Environmental water provision (through pumping or the operation of flow-regulating structures) is a promising tool to reduce the probability of breeding failure and local extinction. Our modeling approach can be used to prioritize the delivery of environmental water to L. raniformis and potentially many other frog species.

Diurnal basking (“sunning”) is common in many ectotherms and is generally thought to be a behavioural mechanism for thermoregulation. Recent studies have reported the occurrence of nocturnal basking in a few distantly-related species of freshwater turtles, but the true extent of this behaviour is unknown, and it may be underreported due to sampling biases (e.g., not surveying for turtles at night). Therefore, we initiated a global, collaborative effort to systematically document and quantify basking activity (diurnal and nocturnal) across a wide range of freshwater turtle species and locations. We conducted camera trap or manual surveys in North America, the Caribbean, Europe, Asia, Africa, the Seychelles, and Australia. We collected 873,111 trail camera photographs (25,273 hrs of search effort) and obtained data on 29 freshwater turtle species from seven families. Nocturnal basking was documented in 13 species, representing six families (Chelidae, Emydidae, Geoemydidae, Kinosternidae, Pelomedusidae, and Trionychidae), including representatives in Central America, Trinidad and Tobago, Africa, the Seychelles, Asia, and Australia. Nocturnal basking was restricted to tropical and sub-tropical locations, suggesting that environmental temperature plays a role in this behaviour. However, the primary factors driving nocturnal basking are yet to be determined and may vary geographically and by species. The frequency and duration of nocturnal basking varied among species and seasons, but nocturnal basking events were often substantially longer than diurnal events. This is the first study to document a widespread occurrence of nocturnal basking, and our results suggest that nocturnal basking may be a common, although overlooked, aspect of many species’ ecology.

Amphibian populations globally are in decline. One great threat is the abstraction of water resources that alter surface-water hydrology. Conservation actions aimed at restoring or manipulating surface water are employed as a management tool, but empirical evidence on the effectiveness of these approaches is scarce. In this systematic review, we summarized the global experience of manipulating water for amphibian conservation. We explored examples of manipulating water to conserve amphibian species and communities. Approaches varied in their frequency of implementation and in their success. Extending hydroperiod to match larval requirements showed encouraging results, as did off-season drying to control predators. Spraying water into the environment showed several potential applications, but successes were limited. Despite some promising interventions, we identified few (n = 17) empirically supported examples of successful water manipulation to benefit amphibians. It is unclear whether this stems from publication bias or if it is an artifact of language selection. However, manipulating water shows some potential in amphibian conservation, particularly at sites with a proximal water source and in regions where aridity is increasing due to climate change. Regardless of the scale of the intervention or its perceived probability of success, high-quality reporting of empirical results will further understanding of how water manipulations can benefit threatened amphibian populations.

Increasing the opportunity for students to be involved in inquiry-based activities can improve engagement with content and assist in the development of analysis and critical thinking skills. The science laboratory has traditionally been used as a platform to apply the content gained through the lecture series. These activities have exposed students to experiments which test the concepts taught but which often result in a predicted outcome. To improve the engagement and learning outcomes of our large first year biology cohort, the laboratories were redeveloped. Superlabs were run with 100 students attending weekly sessions increasing the amount of contact time from previous years. Laboratories were redeveloped into guided-inquiry and educators facilitated teams of students to design and carry out an experiment. To analyse the impact of the redevelopment on student satisfaction and learning outcomes, students were surveyed and multiple choice exam data was compared before and after the redevelopment. Results suggest high levels of student satisfaction and a significant improvement in student learning outcomes. All disciplines should consider including inquiry-based activities as a methodology to improve student engagement and learning outcome as it fosters the development of independent learners.

Identifying cryptic biodiversity is fundamental to evolutionary biology and to conservation efforts. This study investigated range-wide genetic diversity of Gopher Frogs, Lithobates capito, across the southeastern United States coastal plain to determine implications for taxonomy and conservation. We collected data for two mtDNA regions in 21 populations to identify genetic structure across the geographic distribution of the species. Based on population genetic, phylogenetic, and genealogical analyses, we recovered three reciprocally monophyletic mtDNA lineages corresponding to mainland coastal plain populations and two lineages within peninsular Florida. Breakpoints for these lineages did not occur in previously identified hotspots of amphibian phylogeographic breaks and did not follow currently recognized subspecies designations. We recommend these lineages be recognized as separate distinct population segments and be considered separately by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for listing under the Endangered Species Act. Additionally, we propose an evolutionary hotspot for amphibians that deserves further attention.

Twenty-six species of anemonefish of the genera Amphiprion and monospecific Premnas, use only 10 species of anemones as hosts in the wild (Families: Actiniidae, Stichodactylidae and Thalassianthidae). Of these 10 anemone species some are used by multiple species of anemonefish while others have only a single anemonefish symbiont. Past studies have explored the different patterns of usage between anemonefish species and anemone species; however the evolution of this relationship remains unknown and has been little studied over the past decade. Here we reopen the case, comparing the toxicity of crude venoms obtained from anemones that host anemonefish as a way to investigate why some anemone species are used as a host more than others. Specifically, for each anemone species we investigated acute toxicity using Artemia francisca (LC50), haemolytic toxicity using ovine erythrocytes (EC50) and neurotoxicity using shore crabs (Ozius truncatus). We found that haemolytic and neurotoxic activity varied among host anemone species. Generally anemone species that displayed greater haemolytic activity also displayed high neurotoxic activity and tend to be more toxic on average as indicated by acute lethality analysis. An overall venom toxicity ranking for each anemone species was compared with the number of anemonefish species that are known to associate with each anemone species in the wild. Interestingly, anemones with intermediate toxicity had the highest number of anemonefish associates, whereas anemones with either very low or very high toxicity had the fewest anemonefish associates. These data demonstrate that variation in toxicity among host anemone species may be important in the establishment and maintenance of anemonefish anemone symbiosis.

The introduction of the Australian secondary education curricula (ACARA, 2012) provided a unique opportunity to benchmark first year biology across the tertiary sector. Specifically we asked will first-year undergraduate subjects build on and offer further development of the skills and capacities that students will acquire once the Australian curriculum is implemented? The answer to this question has important implications for student transition to, and success at university. Overall first year biology subjects are well placed to build on the skills that pre-tertiary students bring with them when the national senior biology curriculum is fully implemented. However if secondary schools choose to focus on open inquiry methods, then given the status of current curricula, universities will not build on the skills developed at secondary level, and curriculum developers need to aware of this potential difference. Other notable differences and their implications for first year biology courses are highlighted.

By providing tertiary students with practical laboratory experiences that are academically stimulating, students are more likely to engage meaningfully with the task and subsequently achieve a higher assessment grade. The importance of basing practical experiences on realistic inquiry is recognised throughout the literature and is more consistent with constructivist approaches to learning than traditional content driven practical activities (Cunningham, McNear, Pearlman and Kearn 2006; Myers and Burgess 2003; Zion and Sadeh 2007); tertiary educators were initially slow to change their methodologies (Sundberg, Armstrong, Dini and Wischusen 2000) but an increasing number are incorporating inquiry based approaches (Sundberg, Armstrong and Wischusen 2005) with good results and support from national science and education organizations (FitsPatrick 2004; Myers and Burgess 2003). We incorporated an engaging inquiry driven laboratory exercise for first year biology students and compared the average grades achieved from the resulting report with the grades achieved by the same students in less engaging ‘recipe book’ exercises. Student grades for combined practical assignments in which outcomes were predetermined, and the visualisation component focussed on static subjects, had a combined mean final grade of 74.01% (±15.48SD). In contrast, the average grade for the inquiry based exercise was 82.0% (±12.9SD). Surveys indicated that students not only enjoyed the new exercise format more than other practical exercises offered, but could see the value of it to their learning. We believe these results were achieved because students could not complete the new exercise if they did not engage with the task both academically and visually. These kinds of practical opportunities encourage a constructivist learning environment, which enable students to learn and gain insight into difficult concepts, in ways not possible from traditional lectures experienced in a tertiary setting. Many students expressed their interest and enthusiasm in this practical exercise, with 20% of students surveyed volunteering that it was ‘the best practical of the whole semester’.

It would be unwise to think that implementation of the national secondary school biology curriculum will not affect what universities teach. Educators will face challenges but there is also a unique opportunity for a simultaneous curriculum reform at the tertiary level. Our primary aim is to align the biology curricula offered in the two sectors. This alignment has the potential to improve the opportunities for success in higher education among entry level students with diverse backgrounds when there is better integration between two sectors operating independently. Our goal is to foster a dialogue between these two sectors to develop a collaborative network that will inform curriculum development to address the immediate needs arising from the national curriculum. An interactive website that promotes constant dialogue and refinement, will in the long term help maintain consistency in educational standards.

Rates of evaporative water loss (EWL) and cutaneous resistance (R,) to water flux were measured for the two native frog species from the Fiji Islands: the Fiji Ground Frog, Platymantis vitianus, and the Fiji Tree Frog, Platymantis vitiensis (Anura: Ranidae). Surface area specific evaporative water loss was similar between the species: 10.2 (+/- 1.7) and 9.0 (+/- 1.7) mg cm(-2) h(-1) for P. vitiensis and P. vitianus, respectively. The total resistance (R-t) to water loss did not differ from estimates of similarly sized and shaped agar models (representative of a free water surface) for either species; thus, native Fijian frogs are "typical" anurans that have negligible cutaneous resistance (R,) to EWL. Platymantis vitiensis is apparently able to exploit an arboreal habit, despite the concomitant increase in desiccating conditions, because of the humid environment of the Fiji Islands and by living near streams and rivers.

Twenty-two species of nocturnal reptiles were identified in the Robin Falls area during one year (2001-02) of regular observational surveys.More reptiles were observed during the build-up and early dry season compared to the wet and the dry seasons.The greatest number of individuals (42) and species ( 15) of nocturnal reptiles were recorded during the build-up (Sept.-Nov.),during which average night-time temperatures of 28"C, absolute humidity of 19.07g/m 3 , and total rainfall of 190 mm were experienced.While comparisons of seasonal climatic factors produced trends, temperature, humidity and rainfall did not show any significant relationship with the number of observed reptiles.Nearly one third of the nocturnal reptile species listed in the Robin Falls area are considered to be susceptible to the Cane Toad Bufo marinus.This study provides preliminary quantitative baseline data from which to examine any future detrimental effects of the Cane Toad on nocturnal species of reptiles in the Robin Falls area.

A diminutive new species of Uperoleia (male snout-vent length, SVL, 17.3-21.3 mm female, SVL 21.8 mm) is described from 30 km south of Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia. The combination of small size, possession of maxillary and premaxillary teeth, and a completely exposed frontoparietal fontanelle distinguish the species from all other Uperoleia. The variation in number of pulses and duration of the advertisement call distinguish the species from the other sympatric Uperoleia species, Uperoleia inundata and Uperoleia lithomoda, as well as from the other Northern Territory species. The proximity of the type locality to Darwin highlights the current inadequate state of knowledge of the northern Australian frog fauna.

Most frog species show little resistance to evaporative water loss (EWL), but some arboreal species are known to have very high resistances. We measured EWL and cutaneous resistance to evaporation (Rc) in 25 species of frogs from northern Australia, including 17 species in the family Hylidae, six species in the Myobatrachidae, and one each in the Bufonidae and the Microhylidae. These species display a variety of ecological habits, including aquatic, terrestrial, and arboreal specialisations, with the complete range of habits displayed within just the one hylid genus, Litoria. The 25 species measured in this study have resistances that range from Rc = 0 to 63.1. These include low values indistinguishable from a free water surface to high values typical of “waterproof” anuran species. There was a strong correlation between ecological habit and Rc, even taking phylogenetic relationships into account; arboreal species had the highest resistance, aquatic species tended to have little or no resistance, and terrestrial species tended to have resistance between those of arboreal and aquatic frogs. For one species, Litoria rubella, we found no significant changes in EWL along a 1,500‐km aridity gradient. This study represents the strongest evidence to date of a link between ecological habits and cutaneous resistance to water loss among species of frogs.

An increase in temperature, within bounds, will accelerate development of reptile embryos, and morphogenesis can be normal over a range of temperatures despite those varying rates of development. Less well understood is the form of the relationship that best describes variation in developmental rate with temperature. In this article, we apply a linear degree.hour model, an empirical curvilinear model, a biophysical model, and a polynomial model to data on rates of embryonic development and temperature in the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta from northern Australia. The curvilinear models, which have been applied with success to development of insects, describe the embryonic development of turtles well. When fluctuating temperatures extend beyond the constant temperatures that support successful incubation, the curvilinear models continue to perform well, whereas the linear model predictions fail. Sensitivity analysis indicates that under some circumstances, incubation duration may be increased by diel temperature fluctuations, independent of an influence of mean temperature. In other circumstances, incubation duration may be decreased, and in still other circumstances, diel temperature fluctuations will have no impact on incubation duration. This adds an additional dimension to our understanding of how thermal regimes can be selected or manipulated by reptiles to optimise incubation duration and the timing of offspring emergence.

Despite the importance of maternal effects in evolution, and knowledge of links among nest site choice, timing of nesting, offspring sex, and reproductive success in animals with environmental sex determination, these attributes have not been rigorously studied in a combined and natural context. To address this need we studied the relationships between three maternal traits (nest site choice, lay date, and nest depth) and two fitness-related attributes of offspring (hatchling sex and embryonic survival) in the riverine turtle Carettochelys insculpta, a species with temperature-dependent sex determination, for four years. Predation and flooding were the major sources of embryonic mortality in 191 nests. Embryonic survival was influenced by both lay date and nest site choice: in one year when nesting began later than average, nests laid later and at lower elevations were destroyed by early wet season river rises. In other years early nesting precluded flood mortality. However, turtles did not nest at the highest available elevations, and a field experiment confirmed that turtles were constrained to nest at lower elevations where they could construct a nest chamber. The principal determinant of hatchling sex in 140 nests was lay date, which in turn was apparently related to the magnitude of the previous wet season(s). Clutches laid earlier in the season (a female's first clutch) produced mainly males, while later clutches (her second clutch) yielded mostly females, due to seasonal increases in air temperatures. Accordingly, later nesting produced female-biased hatchling sex ratios in 1996, while earlier nesting resulted in sex ratios near unity in the other years. However, all-female nests were more likely to be flooded than mixed-sex or all-male nests in years when nesting was late. In conclusion, we found evidence that the position of two maternal trait distributions (elevation of the nest site and lay date), associated with the reproductive strategy of C. insculpta, reflect a combination of natural selection, physical constraints, and phenotypic plasticity.