The East Pacific (EP) region, especially the central and southern EP, has been fairly less studied than other world's regions with respect to marine litter pollution. This comprehensive literature review (257 peer-reviewed publications) showed that both macrolitter (mostly plastics) and microplastics tend to accumulate on EP shorelines. Moreover, they were also reported in all the other compartments investigated: sea surface, water column, seafloor and ‘others’. Mostly local, land-based sources (e.g., tourism, poor waste management) were identified across the region, especially at continental sites from low and mid latitudes. Some sea-based sources (e.g., fisheries, long-distance drifting) were also identified at high latitudes and on oceanic islands, likely enhanced by the oceanographic dynamics of the EP that affect transport of floating litter. Our results suggest that effective solutions to the problem require local and preventive strategies to significantly reduce the levels of litter along the EP coasts.

The Eastern Tropical and South-Eastern Pacific region is of global biodiversity importance. At COP26, the governments of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador committed to the expansion of existing MPAs to create a new Mega MPA, safeguarding the Eastern Tropical Pacific Marine Corridor. It offers a profound step forward in conservation efforts but is not specifically designed to protect against the more diffuse anthropogenic threats, such as plastic pollution. We combine published data with our own unpublished records to assess the abundance and distribution of plastic pollution in the region. Macro- and microplastic concentrations varied markedly and were not significantly different when comparing areas inside and outside existing MPA boundaries. These findings highlight the diffuse and complex nature of plastic pollution and its ubiquitous presence across MPA boundaries. Understanding the sources and drivers of plastic pollution in the region is key to developing effective solutions.

Plastic pollution in the oceans is increasing, yet most global sea surface data is collected using plankton nets which limits our knowledge of the smaller and more bioaccessible size fraction of microplastics ( <5 mm). We sampled the biodiverse coastal waters of the Galapagos Island of San Cristobal, comparing two different microplastic sampling methodologies; 1 l whole seawater grab samples filtered to 1.2 m and sea surface plankton tows with a net mesh size of 200 mu m. Our data reveal high concentrations of microplastics in Galapagos coastal waters surrounding the urban area, averaging 11.5 +/- 1.48 particles l (- 1 ), with a four-order of magnitude increase in microplastic abundance observed using grab sampling compared with 200 mu m plankton nets. This increase was greater when including anthropogenic cellulose particles, averaging 19.8 +/- 1.86 particles l (- 1) . Microplastic and anthropogenic cellulose particles smaller than 200 mu m comprised 44 % of the particles from grab samples, suggesting previous estimates of microplastic pollution based on plankton nets likely miss and therefore underestimate these smaller particles. The particle characteristics and distribution of these smaller particles points strongly to a local input of cellulosic fibres in addition to the microplastic particles transported longer distances via the Humbolt current found across the surface seawater of the Galapagos. Improving our understanding of particle characteristics and distributions to highlight likely local sources will facilitate the development of local mitigation and management plans to reduce the input and impacts of microplastics to marine species, not just in the Galapagos but globally.

The Galápagos Archipelago is at the forefront of the Anthropocene, facing intensifying pressures from its growing human footprint and accelerated global connectivity. Despite this, little is currently known of its chemical landscape. This review critically examines the drivers, sources, distribution and fate of oil, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in the Galápagos Marine Reserve, identifying pollutant hotspots and evaluating rapid assessment methods and sentinel species that could aid regional monitoring. The cumulative influence of the Galápagos' equatorial position amongst major (and seasonally variable) atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, along with its distinctive geophysical and environmental conditions, such as extreme UV radiation and precipitation, likely exacerbates the archipelagos susceptibility to chemicals from both local and continental inputs. Point and diffuse sources identified include wastewater/effluent discharge, agricultural run-off, mismanaged waste, recreational boating, commercial shipping and industrial fishing. Limited spatiotemporal monitoring has hindered the identification of pollution hotspots, except for harbours as aggregates for maritime activities and urban run-off, and eastern-facing coastlines exposed to the Humboldt Current as plastic accumulation zones. Furthermore, the remote nature and vital protected status of the Galápagos National Park has constrained comprehensive assessment of chemical toxicity and its impacts on marine species across the reserve, with studies primarily restricted to Galápagos pinnipeds. Thus, there is currently insufficient knowledge to determine the extent to which the widespread but sporadic presence of chemical contaminants threatens the resilience and adaptive capacity of Galápagos' complex ecosystems, unique biodiversity and interconnected environmental processes. Future efforts are recommended to strengthen environmental monitoring and chemical risk assessment through the utilisation of rapid assessment tools and regional sentinel species, enhancing fundamental understanding of the chemical landscape in this global conservation Hope Spot, as well as the wider implications of the Anthropocene on diverse, dynamic and remote island ecosystems.

Marine vertebrates, particularly green sea turtles, are especially vulnerable to plastic pollution through ingestion or entanglement. This study investigated wild juvenile green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) from two Ecuadorian national parks (Galápagos and Machallilla) to assess the prevalence of plastic pollution in their feces and its potential impact on various health metrics. We analyzed fecal samples from 46 juvenile green sea turtles using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) to quantify microplastics (MPs). A complementary methodology using pressurized liquid extraction with double-shot pyrolysis-mass spectrometry gas chromatography (Pyr-GC/MS) was also employed to quantify synthetic polymer mass concentrations. The results from these analyses were compared with blood analytes. FT-IR analysis revealed a mean of 4.4±5.2 MPs/g in fecal samples, with the highest quantities found in the Galápagos Marine Reserve (GMR). The most common MPs shape identified were fibers (x̄= 3.8±4.5 MPs/g), and the predominant synthetic polymers were polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH) and polyacrylates (PMMA). The daily intake of MPs by the sampled turtles ranged from a minimum of 312±409 MPs/day to a maximum of 430±563 MPs/day. Pyr-GC/MS analysis detected polyethylene (PE) with a mean of 367±1158 µg/g and polypropylene (PP) with a mean of 155±434 µg/g in fecal samples, with the highest pollution levels observed in the GMR. Both FT-IR and Pyr-GC/MS techniques detected plastic pollution in 98% of the sampled population. Although both FT-IR and Pyr-GC/MS are reliable methods, they produced slightly different results due to methodological variations. However, both supported the finding that turtles in the GMR were exposed to higher rates of plastic ingestion. Despite the turtles appearing clinically healthy based on blood analysis, significant differences in eleven health metrics were observed between turtles classified as less at risk and those most at risk for plastic pollution. Further research is necessary to understand the potential health implications of these findings.

Dataset containing data on abundance, distribution, composition and sources of marine litter (macrolitter and microplastics) along the East Pacific region, generated by reviewing all the peer-reviewed literature published for the region until December 2022. The results of this literature review are presented in the manuscript "Macrolitter and microplastics along the East Pacific coasts – a homemade problem needing local solutions". All the data extracted from the literature are included in the sheets "MacroData" and "MicroData", corresponding to "macrolitter" and "microplastic" studies, respectively. The sheet "Legend_MacroData&MicroData" contains the metadata for the sheets "MacroData" and "MicroData". All the remaining sheets contain the data utilized for the elaboration of the graphs and figures presented in the manuscript.

As human behaviors play a crucial role in addressing the global threat of plastic pollution, it is vital to understand perceptions about marine plastic litter (MPL) and to develop interventions encouraging pro-environmental behaviors (PEBs). This study evaluates story writing as a window to explore perceptions and as an engagement activity to boost PEBs. During the COVID-19 lockdowns, schoolchildren from the East Pacific coast participated in this activity, each creating a story and answering a pre-post survey. Qualitative and quantitative analysis of 81 stories and 79 surveys show awareness of sources and impacts. Participants identified land and local pollution as significant contributors to MPL and emphasized bio-ecological impacts, reflecting concern for landscape and wildlife. While the stories presented a diversity of solutions, recycling dominated the surveys. As participants reported an increase in self-assessed knowledge and improved PEBs after this activity, it can be seen as an engagement tool to encourage behavior change.

Nearly 200 years ago, the unique biota of Galapagos inspired amongst the greatest scientific revolutions in history – Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. Today, this Natural World Heritage site (est. 1976) and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve (est. 1984) also inspires pioneering models of sustainability, conservation and eco-tourism. Such models are celebrated for their long-term solutions to existing tensions between the preservation of biodiversity and the social-economic well-being of local inhabitants. However, the COVID-19 pandemic has revealed their vulnerability to short-term perturbations. COVID-19 has shaken the foundations of the world as the worst pandemic in the last 40 years since HIV/AIDS outbreak in 1976. With over 601 million cases and close to 6.5 million deaths worldwide (WHO, updated August 2022), this pandemic has also destabilized the global economy. Among the most affected nations are those whose economy depends on services like tourism, mostly due to imposed travel bans. One such nation that has been impacted by this pandemic is Ecuador- in particular the Galapagos archipelago. The Galapagos Islands are a renowned destination, attracting over 275 thousand tourists from all over the world every year. Tourism on the islands is a multimillion dollar industry ($143.3 million revenue in 2006) with 78% of the islands' population employed by this sector or connected to it (Epler 2007). The hard halt of international and national flights to the islands and the complete cease of all touristic activities due to the pandemic has put these islands in a dire situation (Fig. 29.1).

Since its invention in the early twentieth century, plastic has transformed the way we live. Offering a cheap, durable material that is easy to transport, plastic has provided many benefits in areas such as the health and food industry, improving sanitation and reducing food waste (Andrady and Neal 2009). The total global production of plastic now exceeds 8000 million metric tons, of which only 9% has been recycled, with 12% incinerated and 79% discarded into landfills or lost to the natural environment (Carney Almroth and Eggert 2019; Geyer et al. 2017). The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the plastic pollution problem markedly, with personal protective equipment such as masks and gloves adding a significant burden to waste management systems worldwide, also resulting in large-scale littering, evidenced by an estimated 1.56 billion face masks ending up in the ocean in 2020 (Yuan et al. 2021). The material properties that make plastic so useful also lead to long-lasting persistence in the environment when littered or leaked from waste management systems. Plastic pollution is now occurring at a monumental scale globally, found in almost all habitats investigated, from the Mariana trench in the deep ocean (Chiba et al. 2018) to the top of Mount Everest (Napper et al. 2020). This poses substantial risks to wildlife and ecosystems and also to socioeconomics and human well-being (Beaumont et al. 2019; Ryan 2015).

Monitoring beach plastic contamination across space and time is necessary for understanding sources and ecological effects, but is logistically and financially challenging, especially for microplastics. Citizen science represents an option for sampling accessible sites, but challenges persist around data validation. Our simple methodology measures contamination on sandy beaches using a standard quadrat unit sieved with a 1 mm mesh, to support a detailed analysis of microplastic distribution and composition on two islands in the marine protected area of the Galápagos Archipelago, Ecuador (San Cristóbal and Santa Cruz). High school and university students undertook sampling, supervised by trained coordinators in 2019 and 2020. A sub-sample of suspected microplastics (n = 2,213, ~30% total) were subject to laboratory-based polymer analysis using Fourier-transform infrared spectrometry, confirming that 93% of particles >1 mm visually identified by students were microplastics or rubber. Over the two beaches, concentrations ranged from zero to 2,524 particles m-2 (the highest yet reported in Galápagos), with strong accumulation gradients measured; parallel to the waterline in Punta Pitt (San Cristobal) and perpendicular in Tortuga Bay (Santa Cruz) where four-fold higher concentrations were recorded in sea turtle nesting habitat than at the strandline. No significant temporal trends were measured. Most microplastics sampled were polyethylene and polypropylene fragments (90%) but 24.5% of the Tortuga Bay sample was polyethylene pellets (nurdles) pointing to varied external sources of pollution. A review of nine comparable studies in the Eastern Pacific showed that accumulation is generally higher in islands than continental beaches, with a significantly higher proportion of fragments. We propose that adding visual weathering scoring and biofouling identification to future studies would be valuable, with 60% microplastics exhibiting high weathering and 6% visibly biofouled. These results demonstrate the value of citizen science in filling spatiotemporal knowledge gaps of beach contamination to support intervention design and conservation.

For decades, multiple anthropogenic stressors have threatened the Galápagos Islands. Widespread marine pollution such as oil spills, persistent organic pollutants, metals, and ocean plastic pollution has been linked to concerning changes in the ecophysiology and health of Galápagos species. Simultaneously, illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing are reshaping the composition and structure of endemic and native Galápagos pelagic communities. In this novel review, we discuss the impact of anthropogenic pollutants and their associated ecotoxicological implications for Galápagos species in the face of climate change stressors. We emphasize the importance of considering fishing pressure and marine pollution, in combination with climate‐change impacts, when assessing the evolutionary fitness of species inhabiting the Galápagos. For example, the survival of endemic marine iguanas has been negatively affected by organic hydrocarbons introduced via oil spills, and endangered Galápagos sea lions exhibit detectable concentrations of DDT, triggering potential feminization effects and compromising the species' survival. During periods of ocean warming (El Niño events) when endemic species undergo nutritional stress, climate change may increase the vulnerability of these species to the impacts of pollutants, resulting in the species reaching its population tipping point. Marine plastics are emerging as a deleterious and widespread threat to endemic species. The Galápagos is treasured for its historical significance and its unparalleled living laboratory and display of evolutionary processes; however, this unique and iconic paradise will remain in jeopardy until multidisciplinary and comprehensive preventative management plans are put in place to mitigate and eliminate the effects of anthropogenic stressors facing the islands today. We present a critical analysis and synthesis of anthropogenic stressors with some progress from local and international institutional efforts and call to action more precautionary measures along with new management philosophies focused on understanding the processes of change through research to champion the conservation of the Galápagos. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:870–895. © 2022 SETAC

Monitoring beach plastic contamination across space and time is necessary for understanding its sources and ecological effects, and for guiding mitigation. This is logistically and financially challenging, especially for microplastics. Citizen science represents an option for sampling accessible sites to support long term monitoring, but challenges persist around data validation. Here we test a simple citizen science methodology to monitor visible microplastic contamination on sandy beaches using a standard quadrat unit (50 cm x 50 cm x 5 cm depth) sieved to 1 mm, to support the analysis of microplastic on two islands within the marine protected area of the Galapagos Archipelago, Ecuador (San Cristobal and Santa Cruz islands). High school and university students undertook supervised sampling of two beaches in 2019-2020 collecting over 7000 particles. A sub-sample of the suspected microplastics collected (n = 2,213, similar to 30% total) were analysed using FTIR spectrometry, confirming 93% of particles >1 mm visually identified by students were microplastics or rubber, validating this method as a crowd-sourced indicator for microplastic contamination. These data provide important insights into the plastic contamination of Galapagos, revealing plastic abundances of 0-2524 particles m(-2) over the two beaches (the highest reported in Galapagos). Strong accumulation gradients were measured parallel to the waterline at Punta Pitt (San Cristobal island) and perpendicular to the waterline at Tortuga Bay (Santa Cruz island), where four-fold higher concentrations were recorded at the sea turtle nesting habitat on the back-beach dune. No significant seasonal trends were measured during one year. These results demonstrate the value of citizen science in filling spatiotemporal knowledge gaps of beach contamination to support intervention design and conservation.

Over 8 tonnes of plastic are removed from the coastlines of the Galapagos Islands each year. Although the Galapagos Marine Reserve is expanding to ensure an even larger protection of its unique biodiversity, the island authorities face the challenge to effectively remove plastic from its shorelines due to limited resources. We are developing a clean-up efficacy model that will optimize for most cost-effective and least-invasive clean-up locations. Network (connectivity) theory is widely applied in ecology to study the interaction of species between spatially separated habitats. Here, we use a similar approach to discern the most effective removal hubs on the Galapagos Islands. A connectivity matrix is constructed from a Lagrangian simulation describing the flow of macroplastic between the various islands within the Galapagos Marine Reserve, where the nodes represent locations along the coastline and the edges the likelihood that plastic travels from one location and beaches at another. To measure the impact of removal, various centralities are determined, such as degree centrality, betweenness centrality (using the most likely path) and eigenvector centrality. Combining the results with other metrics such as the distance to the nearest port or tourist attractions, recommendations are made for * most effective intervention removal hubs that would prevent further spread of plastic throughout the marine reserve * most effective accumulation removal hubs that would negate the impact of plastic on wildlife * most suited regions for protection resulting from the existence of clusters (e.g. regions of limited connectivity)Though we focus on the Galapagos Islands, the methods we present are directly applicable to archipelagos worldwide that face marine plastic pollution issues.

The Galapagos Archipelago and the Galapagos Marine Reserve host one of the world’s most unique ecosystems. Although being a UNESCO world heritage site and being isolated from any dense population, over 8 tonnes of plastic are collected on the islands each year. To decrease the impact of plastic waste in the region, scientific evidence is needed on the sources and fate of the marine debris. Here, we will assess the skill of machine learning techniques to predict beaching events on these islands. In order to do so, we combine various hydrodynamic fields from ocean-, wave-, wind- and tide-models using the OceanParcels particle tracking framework to track virtual particles through the marine reserve. In addition, a beaching parameterization has been developed and implemented to quantify where and when virtual particles wash ashore. The results show that the particle pathways and beaching probabilities strongly depend on the dry and wet seasons characteristic for the Galapagos Islands.Therefore, it is expected that the beaching events can to some extent be predicted from the forecasts of currents, tides and waves - without performing a Lagrangian simulation. To test this hypothesis, PCA analysis and random forests are applied to a set of over 100 variables and their skill to explain the beaching variability given by the particle model is determined. In addition, the results are compared to a timeseries of observed beached litter on one of the Island of San Cristobal to apply the models in a realistic case study. This work, in combination with a growing observational data set, will form the basis of a predictive model that will support the Galapagos National Park in their efforts to free the Galapagos Archipelago from marine debris.

Ecuador's Galapagos Islands and their unique biodiversity are a global conservation priority. We explored the presence, composition and environmental drivers of plastic contamination across the marine ecosystem at an island scale, investigated uptake in marine invertebrates and designed a systematic priority scoring analysis to identify the most vulnerable vertebrate species. Beach contamination varied by site (macroplastic 0–0.66 items·m−2, microplastics 0–448.8 particles·m−2 or 0–74.6 particles·kg−1), with high plastic accumulation on east-facing beaches that are influenced by the Humboldt Current. Local littering and waste management leakages accounted for just 2% of macroplastic. Microplastics (including anthropogenic cellulosics) were ubiquitous but in low concentrations in benthic sediments (6.7–86.7 particles·kg−1) and surface seawater (0.04–0.89 particles·m−3), with elevated concentrations in the harbour suggesting some local input. Microplastics were present in all seven marine invertebrate species examined, found in 52% of individuals (n = 123) confirming uptake of microplastics in the Galapagos marine food web. Priority scoring analysis combining species distribution information, IUCN Red List conservation status and literature evidence of harm from entanglement and ingestion of plastics in similar species identified 27 marine vertebrates in need of urgent, targeted monitoring and mitigation including pinnipeds, seabirds, turtles and sharks.

Marine plastic pollution is a global environmental concern. With reference to approaches in contemporary archaeology, object biographies and psychology, this article presents the application of a novel participatory (‘World Cafe’) methodology that aims both to understand how marine plastic pollution occurs and to demonstrate the value of the approach for encouraging behaviour change. As proof of concept, the authors present the preliminary results of fieldwork involving local people in the Galapagos archipelago to demonstrate the benefits of an archaeological approach in developing new frameworks to help mitigate this critical environmental threat.

Climate change and marine pollution are intertwined in the Galapagos’ living laboratory, where unabated anthropogenic pollution is reshaping evolution in the Anthropocene.

Ecuador’s Galapagos Islands and their unique biodiversity are a global conservation priority. We investigated the presence, partitioning and environmental drivers of plastic contamination across the marine ecosystem, designing a systematic risk scoring analysis to identify the most vulnerable species. Beach contamination varied by site (macroplastic 0 - 0.66 items.m-2, large microplastics 0 - 448.8 particles.m-2, small microplastics 0 – 74.6 particles.kg-1), with high plastic accumulation on east-facing beaches indicating input from the Humboldt Current. Local littering and waste management leakages accounted for 2% of macroplastic. Microplastics (including synthetic cellulosics) were prevalent in sediments (6.7 - 86.7 particles.kg-1) and surface seawater (0.04 - 0.89 particles.m-3), with elevated concentrations in the harbour suggesting local input. Microplastics were present in all seven marine invertebrate species examined, found in 52% of individuals (n = 123). Risk scoring identified 32 species in need of urgent, targeted monitoring and mitigation including pinnipeds, seabirds, turtles, sharks and corals.