The eco-hydrological process related to vegetation on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is special, and the impact of snow cover on the growth of vegetation is unique and important. In this study, we analyzed the multi-year variations in the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and snow cover on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau from spatial and temporal perspectives and determined the relationship between the changes in the NDVI and snow cover. Results showed that in the last 40 years, the rate of change in the snow depth on the plateau was −0.016 mm/a, and the NDVI changed by 0.0005/a. The correlations (|R| values) between the different factors and the NDVI followed the order of precipitation (0.77) > snow depth (0.76) > temperature (0.67) > solar radiation (0.21). The responses of the NDVI to changes in meteorological elements were synchronous, whereas the opposite was found for the snow cover. The snow cover had more significant impacts on vegetation at higher elevations. The NDVI had a lag of about 2 months from the onset of the snow cover, and heavy snow events had negative impacts on the NDVI for more than 3 years. Our findings will facilitate studies of ecological vulnerability and the predictions of changes in vegetation on the plateau.

The dried roots of Scutellaria baicalensis (S. baicalensis) have been widely used as a traditional medicine. Recently, climate change and human activities have caused the degeneration of its wildlife habitat. However, there is rare knowledge on the effect and interactive effect of different variables on the spatial heterogeneity of S. baicalensis and how the pattern of suitable cultivation area in China would shift in response to climate change. Based on the Geodetector and Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) method, we proposed an assessment model to identify the critical environmental variable(s) affecting the distribution of suitable cultivation area for S. baicalensis in China and to project its shift under climate change. The results showed that soil and mean annual temperature are two determining variables in its spatial heterogeneity in China. Compared to 1981–2010, future climate change may result in a decrease in its suitable area, and yet may result in an increase in the extremely suitable area (about 1.00–1.35 million km2). S. baicalensis in the southern and northwestern part of its current distribution and the southwestern part and small area of northern China may experience expansion during the 21st century, while S. baicalensis in southern China, the Huang-Huai-Hai plain, and the midwest of northwestern China may experience contractions. Meanwhile, climate warming is expected to shift its distribution northwest through an expansion at the northern (at least 84 km) and western (at least 62 km) boundary and contraction at the southern (at least 529 km) boundary, respectively. These results could provide valuable information to policy-makers for the conservation and scientific introduction of S. baicalensis.

This book provides a comprehensive and very detailed insight into the Chinese Contemporary Geography in the English language.

青藏高原极端缺氧环境对人畜健康有巨大影响,研究植被对青藏高原大气氧含量的贡献率,有助于厘清青藏高原大气氧含量变化对人畜健康的环境效应.目前关于青藏高原植被对大气氧含量贡献率的研究较少,且缺乏青藏高原植被产氧量对近地表大气氧含量贡献率的时空分布图.本文使用植被净初级生产力时空分布数据计算青藏高原的植被产氧量,并使用大气相对氧含量经验方程和理想气体状态方程计算青藏高原大气绝对氧含量,进而获得植被产氧量对近地表大气氧含量贡献率的时空分布.结果表明,青藏高原植被在2019年的全年总产氧量为1.0353×109t,其对青藏高原全域近地表大气氧含量贡献率的理论上限值平均为0.2788％/d,但存在巨大的时空差异(0.00～4.62％/d):时间上贡献率在年内呈"∧"型的变化特征,一年中贡献率最低值出现在12月,最高值出现在8月中旬;空间上贡献率呈现自东南向西北逐渐降低的分布格局,最低值分布在西北部,最高值分布在东南部.从各植被类型来看,单位面积的贡献率由高到低依次为森林、栽培植被、草原、沼泽湿地和灌丛.从海拔分布来看,单位面积的贡献率总体上呈现随海拔升高而逐渐降低的变化特征.本文首次制作了青藏高原植被产氧量对近地表大气氧含量贡献率的时空分布图,并揭示了青藏高原植被产氧量对近地表大气氧含量贡献率的理论上限值及其时空差异,可为青藏高原近地表大气氧含量变化及其对人畜健康的环境效应研究提供参考.

Context: Population expansion has become a trend. To meet the growing demand for crops, the area required for planting crops will also increase in the future. Current research generally assumes that land suitable for crops will generally shrink under global change, which, together with the increased crop demand, poses challenges to food security.Objective: The objective of this study is to access the global maize planting distribution by improving the crop distribution model with a special focus on both environmental and socioeconomic factors under the global change scenarios of SSP245 and SSP385.Methods: We constructed a crop distribution model that considers both environmental and socioeconomic factors. The environmental factors include topography, soil, and climate variables, while socioeconomic factors include supply-demand balancing, planting inertia, trade, irrigation ratio, and yield progress variables. Through those two aspects, we conducted a comprehensive prediction for the maize planting distribution.Results and conclusion: Compared with the statistics, the modelling results of most countries differ slightly from the statistical data (within 20%), which shows that the model has good performance. Based on the projections of the model, the predicted planting area under the SSP245 and SSP385 scenarios in the near-term (2016-2035) increases by 39.86% and 48.70%, and in the mid-term (2046-2065) increases by 56.17% and 75.73%, respectively. In addition, the maize planting zone has decreased in size in the United States, Mexico, northern Brazil, South Africa, and southern Europe.Significance: Our study provided a comprehensive crop distribution model and projected the global maize planting distribution, emphasizing the importance of socioeconomic factors in crop distribution modelling. Our research could benefit agricultural risk and regional field management.

Salinization is a serious land degradation phenomenon. This study identified the salinity stress threshold as a causal factor for salinization, focusing on global maize fields as the study area. By excluding environmental stressors and setting salinization scenarios, the EPIC model was used to simulate the daily salinity stress threshold during the corn growth process. The global intensity and risk of salinization-induced disaster for maize were evaluated. Based on the principle of information diffusion, the intensity of salinization-induced disaster was calculated for different return periods. The main conclusions were as follows: (1) By excluding environmental stress factors and setting salinization scenarios, algorithms for the salinization index during the growing season and the intensity of salinization-induced disaster were proposed. (2) The salinity hazard factor is highly risky and concentrated in arid and semi-arid regions, while it is relatively low in humid regions. (3) As the recurrence period increases, the risk of salinization-induced hazard becomes higher, the affected area expands, and the risk level increases. (4) The salinization intensity results of this study are consistent with the research results of HWSD (R2 = 0.9546) and GLASOD (R2 = 0.9162).

中国是世界上受台风影响最严重的区域之一,开展系统的台风灾害风险评估及区域规律总结与区划研究,对分区灾害风险防范理论与实践均具有重要意义.本文分析了自然灾害风险综合区划的需求,并以广东省为例,在区域灾害系统理论指导下综合评价了广东省台风灾害人口与经济风险.评价模型包括台风综合致灾因子强度、人口与经济承灾体社会脆弱性、暴露度3个要素.风险评价结果利用多重现期情景下的地学图谱方法表达,包括5、10、20、50和100年一遇的情景.研究表明:① 多个情景下台风综合致灾因子强度从沿海-内陆逐级递减,高强度区域主要集中于沿海部分以及内陆沿河流区域;② 人口与经济承灾体高脆弱区域主要分布于珠三角地区,粤东城市群区域,粤北和粤西的城镇区;③ 人口与经济高暴露区域集中在珠三角、粤东、粤西城市城镇区;④ 台风灾害风险等级从沿海到内陆逐渐降低,5个重现期下中高风险等级区均集中于珠三角一带、次高级中心在粤东潮州-汕头城区一带、粤西的湛江-茂名城区一带.本文的台风灾害风险评价结果具有多情景、系统性的特点,可为广东区域台风灾害人口与经济风险的综合区划提供科学依据.

青藏高原地表氧含量是海拔、地势、气候、水域、植被、土壤综合作用的结果,其中海拔、气温、植被覆盖度与叶面积指数的相对贡献分别为-39.58％、35.50％、24.92％.青藏高原地表氧含量首先呈现东南向西北递减的差异,这主要与依赖水热条件的植被产氧有关;其次是东西延伸、南北更替的差异,这主要与依赖气温与地势的大气压对氧含量的影响有关;第三是随海拔变化的垂直分异,这主要与依赖地势、气温的大气压,以及依赖温度与水分的植被产氧有关.地表氧含量可以定量展现地表自然地理特征的时空格局,据此,本文把青藏高原自然地带划分为3个一级区、17个二级区,即:东南部亚热带森林—森林草原区域,地表年均氧含量为20.35％,7月平均值为20.45％,1月平均值为20.27％,含2个二级区;东部温带森林—草原—草甸区域,地表年均氧含量为20.10％,7月平均值为20.23％,1月平均值为20.00％,含5个二级区;西部寒带温带草原—荒漠—草甸区域,地表年均氧含量为20.00％,7月平均值为20.10％,1月平均值为19.91％,含10个二级区.

The spirituality of stakeholders in cases of drought has gained significant attention in the field of integrated risk governance of agricultural drought. In this paper, based on a field survey and 30 drought response actions in China, we established an indicator system and quantitative model based on concentration and willpower (spirituality, abbreviated as S), considering the aspects of responsibility (R), enterprise (E), and devotion (D) to evaluate the spirituality of the village committee of Xindu District, Hebei Province. We aimed to develop a new method for the quantitative research of multi-stakeholders’ concentration and willpower and to provide a more scientific reference for the formation of consilience in the process of improving risk governance capability. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) Condensed connotations of spirituality focus on expressing the spirit state of each stakeholder, which is the embodiment of the stakeholder’s concentration and willpower in the consilience system. (2) An evaluation framework of “deeds information excavating → stakeholder-oriented survey → grading and classification” is formed. Based on Chinese traditional cultural backgrounds and administrative system characteristics, the evaluation indicator system and model of spirituality are constructed and will further promote the visualization and quantification of spirituality research. (3) The spirituality index (S) of village committees on integrated risk governance of drought presents a trend of normal distribution, and the average value of all secondary indices is R > E > D. The mean value of R is 0.93 and the sample range is 0.49. D has the lowest mean value, with a range of 0.37. (4) There is a regional difference in the average values of spirituality index (S) as follows: “plain area > mountain area > hilly area”, from the perspective of geomorphic units, and “high-income area > middle-income area > low-income area”, from the perspective of the regional economy.

The increase in the frequency, scale, and intensity of drought disasters due to climate change will have a substantial impact on agricultural production activities. Farmers are some of the main victims of drought disasters, and their planting behavior and awareness will affect the regional drought risk level to varying extents. In this study, crop sensitivity under the influence of planting behavior and the subjective adaptability of farmers under the influence of disaster prevention awareness were analyzed. The aim was to assess the vulnerability of farmers to drought and build a risk assessment framework. The results suggested that (1) drought intensity in the southern towns of Xinghe County was relatively high, especially in Dianzi (DZZ), Zhanggao (ZGZ), and the eastern regions of Datongyao (DTY) and Chengguan (CGZ); (2) among the common crops in Xinghe County, the average water demand of naked oats had the highest correlation with precipitation (r, 0.74), suggesting that naked oats would help ensure relatively stable crop yields under drought conditions; (3) the drought vulnerability of Xinghe County tended to decrease from southeast to northwest, with Datongyao (DTY) and Dianzi (DZZ) suffering from the highest drought vulnerability; (4) the drought risk for Xinghe County showed a pattern of high in the South and low in the North. Among them, Saiwusu (SWS) and Datongyao (DTY) were the towns with the lowest and highest drought risk at 60.98% and 52.10%, respectively. With the impact of climate change, the SPI in most areas of Xinghe County indicated a downward trend (MK trend test, p < 0.05). The results suggest that drought risk and farmer vulnerability in this area will increase in the future.

The rapid and effective identification of the spatial distribution of rock deserts in ice–snow melting areas can provide useful information for the prevention of natural disasters. In this study, Landsat TM/OLI were used to track the evolution of snow lines in the snow melting areas of Yushu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (hereinafter referred to as Yushu Prefecture) during the last 30 years. A total of seven extraction schemes were used to classify the rock desert in the ice–snow melting area by remote sensing. Our results show that: (1) The accuracy of the multi-index factor compound analysis and object-oriented classification compound method was the highest. This method can provide a rapid and efficient reference scheme for rock desert extraction in the plateau ice–snow melting area. (2) The combinations of two single methods with higher accuracy can further improve the total accuracy. If a single method with lower accuracy is involved in the multi-method fusion, the accuracy of the method with lower accuracy can be improved. (3) In the past 30 years, there has been a large amount of ice–snow melting in Yushu Prefecture. The ice–snow melting area accounts for 53.78% (1451.04 km2) of the ice–snow area, and the bare rock and bare stone in the rock desert account for 63.77% of the total area of the ice–snow melting area. Bare sand and bare soil area account for 30.27% of the total area of ice and snow melting area.

WXGEN, a weather generator model based on stochastic process theory and mathematical statistics, was widely used in hydrological monitoring models, crop yield estimation models and derived fields of meteorological data. In this study, we used WXGEN to evaluate the simulation accuracy of hydrothermal conditions in the highlands of the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Results showed that: (1) The Markovian chain transfer parameters P(W|D) and P(W|W) of each station were between 0.03–0.30 and 0.12–0.74, which was basically consistent with the temporal and spatial distribution of actual precipitation; (2) In the thermal data simulation, more than 96% of the meteorological stations passed the 0.05 level in three different significance tests of monthly mean minimum and maximum temperature and solar radiation, and the measured deviations of simulated annual mean temperature and solar radiation were 0.686 °C and 1.65 MJ/m2, respectively. In all, 94% of the stations in the hydrological simulation passed the monthly precipitation significance test; (3) The simulated vs. measured deviations of annual precipitation, heavy rain days and wet days were 8.04 mm, 1.023 d and 8.374 d, respectively; (4) The simulation of extreme hydrothermal conditions that may affect the yield of highland barley was very close to the measured situation, and the R2 of simulation and measured value was all above 0.85. The simulation of freezing damage was less accurate, but also higher than 0.85.

China has established an all-dimensional, multilevel, and wide-ranging pattern of opening up to the outside world. It is implementing “Belt and Road” strategy. In the process of international cooperation, China makes full use of both international and domestic markets and resources to improve its international competitiveness. The growth in the volume and optimization of the structure of foreign trade cooperation; the flows and allocations of energy, minerals, foods, and human resources; and the development and sharing of tourism resources have rendered the world an inseparable organic whole. This chapter focuses on the pattern of opening up to the outside world, the “Belt and Road” initiative, and international investment and trade cooperation, providing a foundation for understanding the role of the Chinese economy in the globalization process.

Since 1949, especially since the reform and opening up, China's economy has continued to grow with improved industrial strength and more reasonable industrial structure and regional layout. China has become the second-largest economy in the world. China's economy has significant regional differences. The eastern coastal region is the main body of the country's economic growth and the base of national high-tech industry development and industrial innovation. The Yangtze River Economic Zone is a major national strategic development area. This chapter introduces China's economic geography in terms of industrial structure and economic layout and the development and layout of industry, agriculture, and transportation. It lays the foundation for understanding coordinated regional development.

Global climate change, mainly characterized by warming, has resulted in significant migration of temperature-sensitive crops from traditional planting areas, making crops more vulnerable to climate change and natural disasters, increasing yield losses caused by disasters. Based on the MaxEnt model, combining Representative Concentration Pathways 4.5 and 8.5, the potential suitable areas for highland barley planting on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau were estimated, and the results showed that: (1) Over 30% of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is unsuitable for highland barley cultivation, the area of moderately suitable area for highland barley planting is close to 50%, and the marginally suitable and highly suitable area is less than 20%; (2) From the past distribution to the near and medium-term distributions, the unsuitable area for highland barley planting is gradually shrinking. In the moderately suitable area for highland barley planting, some of the area with relatively low suitability was transformed from unsuitable area, and some of the area with relatively high suitability was transformed into marginally suitable area, so that the total area remained basically unchanged. A small part of the marginally suitable area was converted into high-suitability area, which increased the highly suitable area; (3) From the perspective of different scenarios, in the near and medium term, the area with a slight decrease or no change in suitability under RCP 8.5 was smaller than under RCP 4.5, but the area with a significant increase was larger than under RCP 4.5. The areas with a small decrease or no change in suitability accounted for 23.66–33.77% of the total plateau area and were concentrated in the northwestern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the Qaidam Basin. Areas with a large increase in suitability accounted for 3.47–15.64% of the total area and were located in the southern, central, and eastern parts of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, this area increased significantly with time; (4) Judging from the average altitude change in highland barley planting, the average altitude of the highly suitable area will rise from 3759 m to 3937 m (RCP 4.5) and 3959 m (RCP 8.5) in the near term. By the medium term, the average elevation of the highly suitable area will increase from 3759 m to 4017 m (RCP 4.5) and 4090 m (RCP 8.5). The trend of rising average altitude continues to strengthen.

地理学科具有文理兼容和紧密结合国家重大战略需求的思政属性,是开展课程思政的重要学科.学科核心素养是地理课程教学的灵魂,其与思政要素的结合可以使培养学生能力和立德树人相统一.本文结合高中地理教学的实际情况,依据课标要求,以人教版选择性必修3教材为例,挖掘出思政教育的基本要素,选择基于人地协调观、区域认知、综合思维和地理实践力的不同类型课程思政案例,探讨高中地理课程思政的德育价值,从不同视角对高中地理课程发掘和利用思政元素进行了诠释,以期对高中地理教学中的思政教育和落实立德树人目标提供参考.

China has a complete range of natural resources, widely distributed and geographically diverse, with a large total amount but a small per capita share. With the development of economy and society, the quantity and diversity of resources are obviously decreasing, and the coordination of resource development and environmental protection is highly valued, especially renewable energy development and national energy security, which become the main direction of future energy development. This chapter focuses on biological resources and their diversity, energy and mineral resources and their development, utilization, and conservation, and provides a basis for understanding the overall China’s resources and the prospects of international resource markets, and for understanding the relevance of population, resources, environment, and development (PRED).

"课程思政"是构建全员、全程、全课程育人格局,落实立德树人根本任务的有效途径.本文以北京师范大学中国地理课程为例,梳理课程在百廿建设历史中,德育、思政目标的演进历程.课程新增了人地协调观、生态文明思想等观念塑造,世界眼光、科学精神等价值引领,但培养学生"国家认同"的责任使命始终未变.现今中国地理课程以人才培养目标为导向,确立了"同课异构-分类指导"的课程思政实施方案,构建"情境创设-问题驱动"的融入方式和"教师引导-学生生成"的融入路径,将思政教育融入课堂教学、作业实践、学习评价等多个环节,形成"全程融入-拓展延伸"的课程思政立体化模式.

The increase of the frequency, scope and intensity of drought has a great impact on agricultural production under the climate change. Smallholders are the most direct victims of drought. This paper focused on smallholders' planting strategies and family-scale indicators from the micro perspective and constructed a framework for smallholders' drought vulnerability assessment in semiarid rain-fed agricultural areas. The results show that: (1) There are significant spatial variations in smallholders' drought adaptability and the affected by drought, which may be related to the fragmentation of smallholders' cultivated land in different regions. (2) The drought vulnerability of smallholders also has obvious differences between north and south in Xinghe County. There are several obvious vulnerability hot spots in the south, especially in Datong Yao and Dianzi. The vulnerability index of smallholders in these spots may more than 0.7. (3) The effective irrigation area may be the best factor to explain the spatial variations of smallholders' drought vulnerability. Its interaction with slope can explain more than 20% of the vulnerability difference, which is significant at 0.05 level. This study is expected to enrich the evaluation dimensions of smallholders’ drought vulnerability assessment in arid and semiarid areas, reduce the risk of drought losses of smallholders, and improve the level of regional risk governance.

天气生成器是采用随机过程论,并结合概率论和数理统计的方法生成气象数据的一种模型,它可以模拟出对灾害时空模式的分析和预测中关键的高分辨率、连续的气象数据.在梳理了天气生成器的产生、发展过程与5种主流天气生成器的定义原理与使用情况的基础上,重点关注了天气生成器在自然灾害评估中的角色地位与作用.研究表明,主流的天气生成器多基于马尔可夫链或半经验模型,计算转移概率并发生降水,进而得到其他日值气象数据,近年来多用于水文、气象、农业和灾害综合风险评估等领域.天气生成器可以结合致灾阈值,评估致灾因子发生的强度与频率,或结合水文农业模型对灾害进行评估;也可以结合农作物估产模型,评估损失与脆弱性,或结合未来排放情景,对全球变化背景下未来灾害情况进行预估.但各个模型也存在一定的模拟数值不准确、精度差、极值模拟差的问题.天气生成器的模拟数据是灾害评估中的一种科学的代用资料,进一步开展对天气生成器在灾害学领域的研究,对防灾减灾具有重要的意义.