To disentangle the effects of key dimensions of dispositional mindfulness on parenting, the present study tests the hypotheses that parental Nonreactivity moderates the association between Observing and effective parenting behaviors, and that parental inhibitory control mediates the relationship between Observing and parenting depending on levels of Nonreactivity. The sample consists of 294 fathers (95.9% deployed) and 313 mothers (81.5% nondeployed) from 336 military families with a child aged between 4 and 13 years at baseline. Parents reported Observing and Nonreactivity at baseline using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and completed a computerized Go/No-Go task for assessing inhibitory control at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Families completed a series of in-home interaction tasks at baseline and 2-year follow-up, and effective parenting behaviors were observed and coded using a theory-driven, empirically validated coding system. Results showed that when fathers reported low Nonreactivity, the association between Observing and effective parenting behaviors 2 years later was negative, but this association became positive when fathers reported high Nonreactivity. Fathers' Observing was associated with decreased inhibitory control 1 year later when they reported low (vs. high) Nonreactivity, whereas mothers' Observing was associated with increased inhibitory control 1 year later when they reported high (vs. low) Nonreactivity. The hypothesized effect of inhibitory control as a mediator was not found. Understanding specificity in the effects of dispositional mindfulness dimensions on parenting behaviors will drive effective and efficient designs of mindful parenting interventions. Future research should use dismantling experimental designs to test the synergistic effects of Observing and Nonreactivity in parents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

This study revisits the association between coercive parent-adolescent interactions and adolescent externalizing behaviors. Specifically, we investigate the moment-to-moment coercive exchanges between parents and adolescents and how these dynamic processes map to the long-term development of substance use and antisocial behavior from middle adolescence to early adulthood. We collected videotaped observations with 794 adolescents (ages 16–17 years) and their parents during interactions and coded their real-time behavioral exchanges. State Space Grid analyses were used to measure the proportion of time in which each parent-adolescent dyad engaged in the Dyadic Coercion region as an indicator of rigidity in dyadic coercion. We also measured adolescents’ substance use and antisocial behavior at ages 16–17, ages 18–19, and ages 21–22. The enduring impact of parent-adolescent coercive interaction on substance use and antisocial behavior was tested using categorical latent growth curve models and path models. Adolescents with more coercive interactions with parents showed higher rates of increase in alcohol use and higher levels of antisocial behavior through early adulthood. The findings highlight the unique contribution of using intensive data to understand coercive interactions on a micro-timescale and how these dynamics influence long-term development in externalizing behaviors. Implications for intervention studies are discussed.

The COVID-19 pandemic necessitated dramatic shifts in the delivery and evaluation of attachment-based home-visiting services. The pandemic disrupted a pilot randomized clinical trial of modified Attachment and Biobehavioral Catch-Up (mABC), an attachment-based intervention adapted for pregnant and peripartum mothers with opioid use disorders. We transitioned from in-person to telehealth delivery of mABC and modified Developmental Education for Families, an active comparison intervention targeting healthy development. Of 40 mothers then enrolled in study interventions, 30 participated in telehealth, completing an average of 4.7 remote sessions each (SD = 3.0; range = 1-11). Following the transition to telehealth, 52.5% of randomized cases and 65.6% of mothers maintaining custody completed study interventions, comparable to pre-pandemic rates. Overall, telehealth delivery was feasible and acceptable, and mABC parents coaches' ability to observe and comment on attachment-relevant parenting behaviors was preserved. Two mABC case studies are presented and lessons learned for future telehealth implementation of attachment-based interventions are discussed.    .

Introduction Parents and adolescents often have conflict. Previous research has been inconsistent regarding the association between some parent behaviors during this conflict and adolescent symptoms. This study examines parents’ behaviors during a conflict resolution discussion in a clinical sample, and the relationship between parents’ behaviors and adolescents’ depression and anxiety symptoms. Methods Depression and anxiety symptoms were self-reported by 22 adolescents of ages 13–17 who were diagnosed with depression. They also participated in an observed conflict resolution task with one parent. Using observationally coded data, we utilized two linear multiple regressions to assess how parent and adolescent emotion-related behaviors related to adolescents’ depression and anxiety symptoms. Results Adolescents’ conflict behaviors were not associated with their psychopathology symptoms. Parent conflict behaviors of support and withdrawal were both negatively associated with adolescent depression and anxiety, with parent contempt marginally associated with adolescent depression. Conclusions In this clinical sample, parents of adolescents with low mood or anxiety demonstrated some reduced negative parenting behaviors (i.e., contempt and withdrawal), but also reduced positive parenting behavior (i.e., support). The results suggest that when some negative parenting behaviors are reduced, this may inadvertently reinforce depressive behaviors. The results also indicate the importance of increasing supportive parent behaviors.

Gene by Intervention (GxI) interaction studies examine how a person's genotype may moderate (i.e., increase or decrease benefit from) an intervention's impact, typically in the context of randomized controlled trials. This systematic review examines genetic moderation effects for psychosocial and behavioral interventions that are family-based or school-/individual-based with family components. Differential susceptibility was the most widely used theory. All studies demonstrated significant GxI effects, but the large numbers of interventions and the fragmentary information provided by different genes limits the generalizability of conclusions. Future research should develop stronger biobehavioral theories, designs, and methodologie for studying genes in the family context. The GxI effects reviewed deepen our understanding of genetic moderation effects in intervention studies, provide implications for research by indicating who may benefit more from an intervention, and further guide efforts to personalize intervention programs to include elements to which people with certain genetic characteristics are more sensitive.

Current evidence-based prevention programming targeting child externalizing problems demonstrates modest overall effect sizes and is largely ineffective for a sizable proportion of youth who participate. However, our understanding of the youth and family characteristics associated with response to specific programming is quite limited. The current study used child and family risk profiles as predictors of response trajectories to the Early Risers conduct problem preventive intervention. A sample of 240 kindergarten-aged youth displaying elevated school-based aggression were randomized by school to either the Early Risers intervention or a control condition. Using a number of child and family risk variables, a latent profile analysis produced a solution consisting of five unique risk profiles. Three low and mixed risk profiles were associated with a limited response to the intervention. One high-risk profile characterized by maladaptive parenting and elevated child externalizing demonstrated notably improved trajectories of externalizing behavior over a 3-year period relative to the control condition. Another high-risk profile characterized by inconsistent discipline, high parental distress, and elevated child internalizing and externalizing symptoms seemed to have positive developmental trends disrupted by the intervention relative to the control condition, potentially consistent with an iatrogenic effect relative to the control condition. The study results support continued efforts to use broader risk profiles to examine heterogeneity in response to preventive interventions and, with replication, will have implications for intervention tailoring.

This study investigated the relation between parent–adolescent conflict and adolescents’ depressive symptoms from a dynamic systems framework. Two aspects of conflict were examined: the intensity of conflict and the predictability of dyadic conflict (i.e., the extent to which parents and adolescents follow a predictable pattern in their conflict behaviors) during parent–adolescent interactions. Using a clinical sample of 26 adolescents with depression diagnoses and their parents, we conducted a state space grid analysis to capture the predictability of changes in observer-coded dyadic conflict during a conflict negotiation task. The intensity of conflict was measured using the total observed conflict score and adolescents’ and parents’ self-reports on their conflict behaviors post-discussion. A regression analysis was conducted to examine the moderation effect of the predictability of dyadic conflict on the relationship between the intensity of conflict and adolescents’ depressive symptoms. Results showed that the moderation effect was significant, such that adolescents’ and parents’ conflict behaviors were positively associated with depressive symptoms when parent–adolescent conflict dynamics were more organized and predictable. Findings suggest the importance of understanding the dynamic and dyadic patterns of parent–adolescent interaction when examining the relationship between family processes and adolescent depression.

Mentoring-based interventions show promise among children in foster care, but previous research suggests that some benefit more than others. Because children in foster care experience relationship disruptions that could affect mentoring effectiveness, we examined whether children’s relational histories at baseline (i.e., relationship quality with birth parents, relationship quality with foster parents, caregiver instability, and previous mentoring experience) moderated the impact of a mentoring intervention on children’s mental health, trauma symptoms, and quality of life. Participants included 426 racially and ethnically diverse children (age: 9–11; 52% male) who participated in a randomized controlled trial of the Fostering Healthy Futures program (FHF), a 9-month one-to-one mentoring and skills group intervention. Results showed that relationship quality with foster parents and prior mentoring experience did not moderate intervention impact. Relationship quality with birth parents and caregiver instability pre-program, however, moderated the effect on some outcomes. The impact on quality of life was stronger for children with weaker birth parent relationships and fewer caregiver changes. Likewise, the impact on trauma symptoms was stronger for those with fewer caregiver changes. Overall, FHF seems to positively impact children with varied relational histories, yet some may derive more benefits – particularly those with fewer caregiver changes pre-program.

Military service members who were exposed to combat-related traumatic events may exhibit emotion regulation problems, which can compromise emotion-related parenting practices (ERPPs). After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) is a preventive intervention developed for military families to improve parenting behaviors, including ERPPs. Parental emotion regulation difficulties may affect parents’ responses to this parenting program. Thus, this study aimed to use a baseline target moderated mediation design to examine the intent-to-treat (ITT) effect of the ADAPT program on deployed fathers’ emotion-related parenting practices (ERPPs) at the 1-year follow-up as well as the moderation and mediation effect of fathers’ emotion regulation difficulties. The sample consisted of 181 deployed fathers and their 4–13-year-old children. At both baseline and 1 year, fathers’ ERPPs (i.e., positive engagement, withdrawal avoidance, reactivity-coercion, and distress avoidance) were observed during a series of structured parent–child interaction tasks. Results of path analyses showed no ITT effects on fathers’ ERPPs, but emotion regulation difficulties significantly moderated ITT effects on distress avoidance. Fathers with higher levels of emotion regulation difficulties at baseline showed decreases in distress avoidance behaviors at 1 year if randomized to the intervention condition. Emotion regulation difficulties also significantly mediated the program’s effect on reductions in reactivity coercion for fathers with high levels of emotion regulation difficulties at baseline. These findings highlight parental emotion regulation as a key baseline target of the ADAPT program and provide insight into how and for whom a parenting program improves parenting practices.

Mentoring-based interventions show promise among children in foster care, but previous research suggests that some benefit more than others. Because children in foster care experience relationship disruptions that could affect mentoring effectiveness, we examined whether children's relational histories at baseline (i.e., relationship quality with birth parents, relationship quality with foster parents, caregiver instability, and previous mentoring experience) moderated the impact of a mentoring intervention on children's mental health, trauma symptoms, and quality of life. Participants included 426 racially and ethnically diverse children (age: 9-11; 52% male) who participated in a randomized controlled trial of the Fostering Healthy Futures program (FHF), a 9-month one-to-one mentoring and skills group intervention. Results showed that relationship quality with foster parents and prior mentoring experience did not moderate intervention impact. Relationship quality with birth parents and caregiver instability pre-program, however, moderated the effect on some outcomes. The impact on quality of life was stronger for children with weaker birth parent relationships and fewer caregiver changes. Likewise, the impact on trauma symptoms was stronger for those with fewer caregiver changes. Overall, FHF seems to positively impact children with varied relational histories, yet some may derive more benefits - particularly those with fewer caregiver changes pre-program.

Parent-child physiological synchrony, which is characterized by the matching or concordance of physiological states among parents and children, has been theorized to be linked to children’s self-regulation and adaptive outcomes. However, the link between physiological synchrony and child regulatory outcomes was rarely examined in empirical studies, especially in the at-risk populations (i.e., post-deployed military families). Also, no research has investigated the impact of parenting interventions on physiological synchrony. Study 1 employed a multilevel growth modeling approach to model dynamic changes in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) during a dyadic problem-solving task, and results showed a positive association between physiological synchrony and child self-regulation. Also, younger children tended to show positive lagged synchrony with mothers while older children tended to show negative lagged synchrony. Mothers’ emotion dysregulation was found to be associated with higher levels of lagged synchrony. Additionally, synchrony was found to be linked to both positive (i.e., fewer displays of anger/disgust, more positive physical behaviors, and less negative directive behaviors) and negative parenting behaviors (i.e., fewer displays of positive affect). Study 2 explored the effect of the After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools/ADAPT parenting intervention on dyadic synchrony, as well as the moderation effect of synchrony at baseline on the indirect intervention effect on child self-regulation through changes in parental emotion socialization. Although the hypothesized intervention effect was not observed, dyads with negative synchrony at baseline were found to benefit more from the ADAPT intervention. The changes in emotion socialization behaviors were further associated with better child self-regulation. These two studies highlighted the importance of parent-child physiological synchrony in self-regulation development in children in military families who are at risk for developing maladaptive behaviors. The implications and future directions are discussed.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES:Grandparents are key resources in grandchildren care globally. However, mixed findings indicated that multiple role engagement may enhance well-being and bring demands on grandparent caregivers in different contexts. This systematic review examines the association between the intensity of grandparent caregiving and their health and well-being (i.e., physical, mental, cognitive, and life satisfaction) by continent and country/region.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS:Systematic searches were conducted in 4 databases. Peer-reviewed articles with quantitative designs published between 1990 and November 2021 were identified. A rigorous selection process was followed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. The studies were critically appraised, and their results were narratively synthesized.RESULTS:Sixty-five articles from 29 countries/regions were included. Findings suggested a concave curvilinear relationship between the intensity of grandparent caregiving and their health and well-being, with the optimal caregiving intensity varying across sociocultural contexts. In Europe, Oceania, the Middle East, and South America, providing supplementary or occasional care seems beneficial for grandparents' health and well-being, especially supporting dual-earner families. In East Asia, economic resources appear to buffer the adverse effect of primary care on grandparents' well-being. In the United States, findings vary across ethnicity/race.DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS:Collectively, the intensity of grandparent caregiving, health, and well-being is complicated by grandparents' roles in the family and cultural differences. Acknowledging the bidirectional relationship between well-being and grandparents' capacity for providing care, the well-being as outcome is a limitation. Despite so, this systematic review calls for culturally-tailored family programs to support grandparent caregiving.

Military servicemembers face substantial challenges due to war-related trauma exposure, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Individuals with deficits in inhibitory control (IC) may have an increased risk of developing PTSD due to a reduced ability to regulate their cognitive responses to and disengage from trauma-related stimuli. After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) is a mindfulness-infused parenting program for military families that has also been found to have crossover effects on parental mental health. The present study examined whether fathers' IC at baseline affected their response to this emotional skills-focused intervention and further influenced their PTSD symptoms 1 year later. The sample included 282 male National Guard and Reserve (NG/R) service members who had recently been deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan. Fathers were randomly assigned to either the ADAPT program or a control condition, with IC measured at baseline and PTSD symptoms measured at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Intent-to-treat analyses revealed no significant main effect of the intervention on fathers' PTSD symptoms. However, fathers' IC moderated intervention effects on PTSD symptoms, f2 = 0.03. The intervention had more beneficial effects on reducing fathers' PTSD symptoms for participants with low IC at baseline. These findings are consistent with compensatory effects in the risk moderation hypothesis, which suggests that prevention or intervention programs are more effective for high-risk subgroups.

Children of combat deployed parents are at risk of behavioral problems. Parental emotion socialization (PES) has been theorized to influence children's behaviors; many studies lend support to this theory. However, longitudinal studies examining PES with experimental designs are sparse. In this study, we estimated PES growth trajectories following a parenting intervention and evaluated whether intervention induced improvements in PES predict child outcomes in postdeployed military families. National Guard/Reserve families with at least one deployed parent and a child aged 4-13 years were randomized into an intervention or control group. Data from all 255 2-parent married families, who were primarily Caucasian and middle-class, were analyzed. PES was indicated by self-reported nonsupportive and supportive reactions to children's negative emotions (baseline, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up). Child behaviors were assessed through averaged mother- and father- reports (baseline and 2-year follow-up). Results of latent growth models showed that mothers and fathers assigned to the intervention condition reported greater improvements in nonsupportive PES (steeper negative slopes) over 2 years relative to controls. Both mothers' and fathers' intervention-induced improvements in nonsupportive PES were associated with decreased child internalizing behaviors. Mothers' intervention-induced improvements in nonsupportive PES were associated with decreased child externalizing behaviors. No significant findings were detected for intervention effects on supportive PES growth trajectories. Our findings supported the indirect effects of the intervention on child behaviors through nonsupportive PES over two years. PES is an important, malleable skill that can be targeted in parenting interventions for postdeployed military families. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

SYNOPSIS Objective. This study examined the bidirectional relations between effective parenting practices and externalizing problems in children in homeless families. Design. The sample comprised 223 children (M = 8.12 years) in 137 families living in temporary supportive housing, who participated in the Early Risers conduct problems prevention program lasting 2 years. Video-recorded observations of parent-child interactions were collected and rated by trained observers to assess effective parenting practices. Child externalizing problems were reported by their school teachers. Both variables were assessed at baseline prior to intervention and at 1- and 2-year post-baseline. Results. Child externalizing problems at baseline were negatively associated with effective parenting from baseline to year 1 as well as from year 1 to year 2. Observed effective parenting practices at year 1 were negatively associated with child externalizing problems from year 1 to year 2.Conclusions. These findings underscore the presence of bidirectional influence processes between parents and children in high-risk families. Implications for intervention programs for high-risk families are discussed.

The original version of this article unfortunately contained a mistake.

Utilizing a large (N = 739), ancestrally homogenous sample, the current study aimed to better understand biological risk processes involved in the development of depressive symptoms in maltreated, African American children age 8-12 years. Maltreatment was independently coded from Child Protective Services records and maternal report. Self-reported depressive symptoms were attained in the context of a week-long, summer research camp. DNA was acquired from buccal cell or saliva samples and genotyped for nine polymorphisms in four hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis-related genes: FKBP5, NR3C1, NR3C2, and CRHR1. Salivary cortisol samples were collected each morning (9 a.m.) and late afternoon (4 p.m.) throughout the week to assess HPA functioning. Results revealed that experiences of maltreatment beginning prior to age 5 were most predictive of depressive symptoms, whereas maltreatment onset after age 5 was most predictive of HPA axis dysregulation (blunted daytime cortisol patterns). Multigenic risk did not relate to HPA functioning, nor did it moderate the relationship between maltreatment and HPA activity. There was no mediation of the relationship between maltreatment and depressive symptoms by HPA dysfunction. Results are interpreted through a developmental psychopathology lens, emphasizing the principle of equifinality while carefully appraising racial differences. Implications for future research, particularly the need for longitudinal studies, and important methodological considerations are discussed.

Deployment to war is associated with disruptions to emotion regulation and parenting. Using data from a randomized controlled trial, we examined whether fathers with poorer emotion regulation would differentially benefit from the After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools program, a 14-session group-based parenting intervention. Prior analyses of the intervention demonstrated benefits to observed couple parenting and children's adjustment, but not to fathers' observed parenting. In this study we examined whether intervention effects on fathers' observed distress avoidance were moderated by baseline emotion regulation, and whether reduced distress avoidance was associated with improved observed parenting and reduced children's internalizing symptoms. A subset of the full randomized controlled trial sample (181 families with a father who had returned from deployment to war in Iraq or Afghanistan, a nondeployed mother, and a target child aged 4-13) completed measures at baseline, 12-months, and 24-months postbaseline. Results indicated that fathers high in baseline emotion regulation difficulties assigned to the intervention group showed reductions in observed distress avoidance at 12 months compared to controls, which were subsequently associated with improvements in observed parenting practices and reductions in children's internalizing symptoms at 24 months. The results suggest a role for personalizing parenting programs for fathers high in emotion dysregulation.

Children of combat deployed parents are at risk of internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Parental emotion socialization (PES) has been theorized to influence children’s behaviors, and many studies, including a few randomized trials, lend support to this theory. However, longitudinal studies with experimental designs are sparse. In the current study, we estimated growth trajectories of PES after a parenting intervention and evaluated whether PES growth predicts child outcomes in post-deployed military families. National Guard/Reserve military families with at least one deployed parent and a child aged 4-13 years were randomized into an intervention or control group. In the current study, we analyzed data from all 255 two-parent married families, who were primarily Caucasian and middle-class. PES was indicated by self-reported non-supportive and supportive reactions to children’s negative emotions at baseline, 1-year, and 2-year follow-up. Child behaviors were assessed through averaged mother- and father- reports at baseline and 2-year follow-up. Results of latent growth models showed that mothers and fathers assigned to the intervention reported improvements (i.e., steeper negative slopes) in their non-supportive PES trajectories over 2 years, relative to controls. Both mothers’ and fathers’ changes in non-supportive PES trajectories were associated with decreased internalizing behaviors in children, while only mothers’ change was associated with decreased externalizing behaviors in children. No significant findings were detected for supportive PES growth trajectories. Our findings suggest that PES appears to be a malleable and important parenting skill for post-deployed military families.