The reproducibility, or reliability, of exercise tests is essential in detecting changes in performance. The reliability of cycling performance is difficult to measure in the field for several reasons, especially wind. Therefore, performance measures of cycling are often conducted in a laboratory setting. However, standard cycle ergometers do not allow cyclists and triathletes to adjust their riding position to the one normally used on their own bicycle, which may compromise performance and reliability. In addition, ergometers that do allow for riding position adjustment are very expensive. PURPOSE: To evaluate the reproducibility of a simulated 20-km time trial (TT) in competitive cyclists and triathletes using the athlete's own bicycle mounted to an electronic load generator (ELG). METHODS: 11 competitive road cyclists and triathletes (8 men, 3 women) who were currently in their off-season, but regularly cycle training, were recruited as subjects. Each subject completed three identical TT using their own bicycle, each separated by 2 or 3 days. Subjects were asked to refrain from alcohol consumption and vigorous exercise for 48 h prior to testing, and report in a fasted state (about 4 hours after the last meal and caffeine ingestion). After a standard warm-up, the subject's rear bicycle tire was inflated to a standard pressure (7.58 BAR) and the ELG was calibrated per manufacturer's instructions. Subjects then cycled 20-km as fast as possible on their own bicycle, mounted on the ELG. The ELG was connected to a computer that displayed a simulated outdoor course on the monitor, and recorded power output (PO), time, and distance cycled. During the TT, subjects were allowed to drink water ad libitum, and knew how far they had cycled. Heart rate (HR) was measured with a HR monitor, however, subjects were not allowed to know their HR, elapsed time, or PO. Plasma lactate (PL) concentrations were measured via finger stick at rest, 10-km and 20-km during the TT, and 3 min post-TT. Velocity (V) was calculated from the PO and time to complete the TT measured by the ELG. Differences between trials were analyzed using a repeated measures ANOVA (p<0.05) and intraclass correlations (ICC) were calculated to analyze the agreement between repeated trials. RESULTS: Of the 11 subjects, only 8 (5 men, 3 women, mean ± SD, age = 34 ± 9 yr, body weight = 68.2 ± 8.3 kg, body fat = 15.3 ± 9.4 %, PO = 199 ± 69.4 watts) had performance data from all 3 trials. For these 8 subjects, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) for PO, time to complete TT, or V across the trials, with ICC values of R = 0.99 for each variable. HR responses were not different across the trials at 10-km or 20-km (p>0.05) with ICC values of R = 0.85 and 0.94, respectively. Of these 8 subjects, only 6 had PL data from all 3 trials. For these 6 subjects, there was no significant difference (p>0.05) for PL at 10-km, 20-km, or post-TT, with ICC values of R = 0.89, 0.97, and 0.96, respectively. CONCLUSION: If strict calibration methods are followed, both performance and physiologic data are highly reproducible when testing competitive cyclists using their own bicycle and an ELG controlled by a computer. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Using a reliable ELG that allows cyclists to use their own bicycle provides researchers, coaches, and athletes with a less expensive option for performance testing of athletes that compete on a variety of bicycles with varying riding positions.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 2 and 6 days of creatine phosphate loading on anaerobic working capacity (AWC) and body weight (BW) in men and women. Sixty-one men (n = 31) and women (n = 30) randomly received 1 of 3 treatments (4 x 5 g.d(-1) x 6 days) using a double blind design: (a) 18 g dextrose as placebo (PL); (b) 5.0 g Cr + 20 g dextrose (Cr); or (c) 5.0 g Cr + 18 g dextrose + 4 g of sodium and potassium phosphates (CrP). AWC was determined at baseline and following 2 and 6 days of supplementation using the Critical Power Test. BW increased significantly over time, and the mean value for the men was significantly greater compared to that for women, but there were no interactions (p > 0.05). There were gender-specific responses for AWC expressed in both absolute values (kJ) and relative to BW (kJ. kg(-1)), with the women demonstrating no significant interactions. For the men, CrP loading significantly increased AWC following 2 days (23.8%) and 6 days (49.8%) of supplementation vs. PL (kJ and kJ.kg(-1)). Cr supplementation increased AWC 13-15% in both genders compared to PL (1.1%- 3.0% decline); although this result was not statistically significant, it may have some practical significance.

2370 Good quality proteins (GQP), found in animal food sources such as meat, poultry, eggs, dairy and fish, provide essential amino acids and are highly digestible. Estimated protein requirements for athletes (1.2–2.0 g · kg−1) generally assume that the diet provides about two-thirds of total protein as GQP, which is reflective of average U.S. intake. However, many female athletes avoid GQP foods, particularly red meat, for a number of reasons including the perception that these foods will lead to increases in body fat. Low intakes of GQP, if not compensated for by higher total protein and energy intakes, may pose a risk for suboptimal protein status in female athletes. PURPOSE: To examine the dietary protein intake of college female athletes and compare red meat eaters to those who rarely or never eat red meat; and to examine relationships between dietary fat intake and percent body fat (% BF). METHODS: Forty-one NCAA Division I and II college female athletes (19 – 22 y) representing a variety of sports participated in the study. The subjects recorded detailed 3 d dietary records both in- and off-season. Percent BF was measured in-season using dual x-ray absorptiometry, and the dietary records were analyzed using Food Processor software. RESULTS: Mean energy intake was 2450 ± 452 kcal (37 ± 8 kcal · kg−1) and average total protein intake was 1.25 ± 0.27g · kg−1. Mean animal protein intake was 0.69 ± 0.24 g · kg−1 or 55% of total. Sixty-one percent of the athletes consumed less than 0.75 g · kg−1, which is the recommendation of the 1985 FAO/WHO/UNU Joint Expert Consultation for GQP. There were no significant differences in GQP between red meat eaters and non-meat eaters, and all subjects were lower than the US average for red meat intake. Dietary fat intake was not correlated with % BF, however, significant (p < 0.05) inverse correlations were observed between energy intake and protein intake and % BF (−0.40 and −0.47, respectively). CONCLUSION: GQP intake was low in the majority of female athletes studied. In addition, dietary fat intake was not related to % BF in this group, which is contrary to the perception of many athletes. Supported by Nebraska Beef Council

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 2 and 5 days of Cr loading on anaerobic working capacity (AWC) using the critical power (CP) test in women. Ten physically active women randomly received 2 treatments separated by a 5 week washout period: (A) 18 g dextrose as placebo (PL) or (B) 5.0 g Cr + 18 g dextrose taken 4 times per day for 5 days. Following a familiarization trial, each subject completed the CP test at baseline and following 2 and 5 days of supplementation. The PL resulted in no significant changes in AWC following supplementation; however, Cr increased AWC by 22.1% after 5 days of loading (p < 0.05). There was a significant main effect for body weight (BW), however, there was no significant increase in BW due to Cr supplementation. These results suggest that Cr supplementation is effective for increasing AWC in women following 5 days of loading without an associated increase in BW.

PURPOSE The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of 30 d of single dose creatine phosphate (CrP) supplementation on critical power (CP) and anaerobic work capacity (AWC) in men. METHODS Twenty-eight men, who exercised at least 4 d·wk−1 for 60 min, volunteered for this study. Each subject first performed a critical power test (CPT) on an electronically braked cycle ergometer to familiarize themselves with the testing protocols, and to allow the investigators to estimate workloads for subsequent trials. The subjects were randomly assigned to one of two supplement conditions using a double-blind design: (1) 20 g of flavored dextrose powder as a placebo (PL) (n = 12), or (2) 5.0 g of creatine citrate plus 2 g of monobasic sodium phosphate + 2 g monobasic potassium phosphate and 18 g of dextrose (CrP) (n = 16). The powders were packaged to be identical in taste and appearance, and dissolved in 16 oz. of water for consumption. Prior to supplementation, subjects performed a second CPT to provide baseline (BL) values for CP and AWC. During the study, the subjects were asked to maintain their normal dietary and activity patterns. Upon completion of the 30 d supplementation protocol, the subjects completed a final CPT (30d) from which CP and AWC were calculated. The estimates of CP and AWC were calculated using a linear regression model (total work versus time to exhaustion). The CP and AWC data were analyzed using two repeated measures ANOV As (2×2, α < 0.05). RESULTS The results indicated that there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in CP from BL to 30d for all subjects combined, however, there were no other significant comparisons in either ANOVA. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that supplementation with a single dose of CrP for 30 d did not have a significant effect on CP or AWC estimates in this group of males when compared to PL. Although there was a significant increase in CP for all subjects, this increase may have been due to an increased familiarization with the high intensity testing protocol. Supported by Nutricia, USA

Increases in body weight (BW) following creatine (Cr) loading have been reported to range from 0.7 kg to 1.6 kg. Because of the potential for phosphate to further enhance creatine phosphate (CrP) synthesis, many Cr supplements now include phosphates. Limited information is available, however, regarding the effect of long term CrP supplementation on BW. PURPOSE The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of 30d of single dose CrP supplementation on BW in men. METHODS Thirty-two physically active men (X age ± SD = 21 ± 2 yr) randomly received one of two treatments using a double-blind design: (1) 20g of flavored dextrose powder as placebo (PL) (n=15) or (2) 5.0g of Cr citrate plus 2g of monobasic sodium phosphate + 2g monobasic potassium phosphate and 18g of dextrose (CrP) (n=17). The powders were identical in taste and appearance and were dissolved in 16 oz. of water and ingested one time per day for 30 consecutive days. During the study, the subjects were asked to maintain their normal dietary and activity pattern and refrain from exhaustive physical exercise, caffeine, and alcohol for 24h prior to BW testing. BW was measured to the nearest 0.11 kg at approximately the same time of day using a calibrated physician's scale at baseline (BL), and following 10, 20, and 30d of supplementation, as well as 10d post-supplementation (PS). The data were analyzed using a 2 × 5 ANOVA (p < 0.05). RESULTS The results indicated that there was a significant time × group interaction and post hoc analyses revealed that only the CrP group experienced a significant change in BW. BW at 10d (78.9 ± 5.1 kg), 20d (79.1 ± 5.1 kg), 30d (78.9 ± 5.2 kg), and PS (78.5 ± 4.4 kg) was significantly greater compared to BL (77.9 ± 5.1 kg). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that a single serving of CrP for 30d resulted in a significant increase in BW compared to PL. The increase in BW (1.0 kg) was similar to that observed for Cr loading protocols and occurred within the first 10d of supplementation. Thereafter, BW was maintained throughout the supplementation period and up to 10d PS. (Supported by Nutricia, USA)

To our knowledge, no studies have examined the combined effect of creatine (Cr) plus phosphate supplementation on anaerobic working capacity (AWC) in women. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of 2 d and 6 d of creatine phosphate (CrP) loading on AWC in women. METHODS: Thirty physically active women (age range = 18 - 35 yr) were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups using a double blind design: (1) 18 g of dextrose as placebo (PL); (2) 5 g of Cr plus 2 g of sodium phosphate and 2 g of potassium phosphate with 18 g of dextrose (CrP); or (3) 5 g of Cr plus 18 g dextrose. All of the treatments were administered as a flavored powder blend and were packaged to be identical in taste and appearance. The treatments were dissolved in 16 oz. water and ingested 4 times per day for 6 consecutive days. The subjects completed 4 d of testing on an electronically braked cycle ergometer: (a) familiarization - 1 learning trial to establish power outputs (PO) for subsequent testing; (b) pre-testing - 2 bouts performed at PO selected to elicit fatigue in 1 - 10 min; (c) post-testing - 2 bouts performed at the same PO following 2 and 6 d of supplementation. The data were analyzed using a 3 x 3 (group x time) ANOVA. When appropriate, Tukey post-hoc tests were used to make pairwise comparisons. RESULTS: The results indicated that there were no significant (p > 0.05) effects by time or by group. When examining the changes in AWC for each group from baseline to 6 d, the Cr and CrP groups experienced a 13.0% (ES = 0.68) and 10.8% (ES = 0.55) increase in AWC, respectively, whereas the PL group demonstrated a 1.1% decrease (ES = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that neither Cr or CrP supplementation was effective for increasing AWC when compared to PL. Although the changes in AWC were not statistically significant, it is worthy to note (from a performance standpoint) that the Cr and CrP groups experienced a 13.0% and 10.8% increase in AWC, respectively, while the PL group demonstrated a 1.1% decline. The increase in AWC for the Cr group was consistent with previous studies using female subjects that reported increases ranging from 14.8% to 22.1% following 5 - 6 d of loading. Supported by Nutricia USA

PURPOSE The purpose of this case study was to determine the effects of 15 wk of resistance exercise and creatine (Cr) supplementation on body composition, training volume, peak strength, and complete blood chemistry in a patient with myasthenia gravis (MG). METHODS The patient was a 26-yr-old man who was taking prednisone and azathioprine for his condition. The patient self-administered 5 g of Cr per day in addition to resistance exercise 3 times per week. Fasting blood samples were obtained and body weight (BW) and fat free mass (FFM; via hydrostatic weighing) were measured before and after training and Cr supplementation. In addition, isokinetic (Cybex II) peak strength for leg extension (LE), leg flexion (LF), and volume load (repetition x mass lifted) for the first and last resistance training session were determined. RESULTS After Cr supplementation and training, the results demonstrated increases in BW (6.8%), FFM (4.3%), upper body volume load (37.0%), lower body volume load (15.0%), and peak strength for LE (37.0%) and LF (12.5%). Moreover, blood chemistry values remained within normal limits for the duration of the 15-wk study. CONCLUSION These data suggest that resistance exercise plus Cr supplementation may promote gains in strength and FFM in patients with MG.

The purposes of this investigation were to (a) modify the y-intercepts of previously published skinfold (SF) equations using the constant error (CE) values from Stout et al. (24); (b) cross-validate the modified equations to determine their accuracy for estimating body density (BD) in young wrestlers; (c) derive a new SF equation for estimating BD in young wrestlers, if the modified equations are not found to be accurate; and (d) cross-validate the new SF equation on an independent sample of young wrestlers. One hundred thirty-seven age-group wrestlers (mean ± SD age = 11.3 ± 1.6 year) volunteered to perform underwater weighing for the determination of BD and to have SF measured at 8 sites. Cross-validation of the 16 modified SF equations on a random sample of 50 subjects resulted in total error (TE) values that were ≥ 0.0110 g·cm−3 (approximately 5.1% fat). Therefore, the following SF equation was derived on a random sample of 100 of the subjects: BD = 1.056–0.00098 (triceps SF) + 0.00132 (age in years)-0.0017 (anterior suprailiac SF) + 0.00031 (body weight in kg). R = 0.78, SEE = 0.0064 g·cm−3. Cross-validation of this equation on an independent sample of 37 subjects resulted in a nonsignificant (p > 0.05) CE of −0.0009 g·cm−3, a validity coefficient (r) of 0.70, SEE of 0.0076 g·cm−3, and TE of 0.0076 g·cm−3. Therefore, this SF equation is recommended for estimating body composition characteristics in young wrestlers. Future studies should cross-validate this equation on young athletes in various sports.

The critical power (CP) cycle ergometer test, theoretically, provides an estimate of a power output that can be maintained without fatigue. It has been suggested that pyruvate (PYR) supplementation may enhance endurance capacity. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effect of PYR supplementation on CP. Using a double-blind random design, 9 male and 9 female (mean age ± SD = 20.7 ± 3.5 years) university crew team members were assigned to 1 of 2 treatment conditions: (a) placebo (PL, n = 9) or (b) pyruvate (PYR, n = 9). Prior to supplementation, CP for each subject was determined from 3 workbouts to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer. Each subject was posttested at the same power outputs after ingesting the PL or PYR supplement for 14 consecutive days. The results indicated that PYR supplementation had no (p > 0.05) effect on CP (PL group, pretest CP = 203 ± 45 W, posttest CP = 201 ± 49 W; PYR group, pretest CP = 202 ± 47 W, posttest CP = 207 ± 45 W). These data suggest that 8.1 g·d−1 of PYR does not elicit improvements in endurance capability as measured by the CP test.

Anaerobic working capacity (AWC) estimated from the critical power test provides a theoretically and experimentally valid estimate of work capacity associated with muscle energy reserves adenosine triphosphate and phosphocreatine. Creatine monohydrate (CM) supplementation has been shown to increase phosphocreatine stores in skeletal muscle and, in theory, should increase AWC. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of supplementation with CM, CM plus carbohydrate (CHO), or CHO alone on AWC. Using a double-blind random design, 26 young men (mean age 6 SD, 19.9 6 1.6 years) were assigned to 1 of 3 treatment conditions: (a) 35 g of flavored CHO powder as a placebo (PL, n 5 8); (b) 5.25 g of CM and 1 g of CHO in a flavored powder blend (CM, n 5 9); and (c) 5.25 g of CM and 33 g of CHO in flavored powder blend (CM-CHO, n 5 9). The subjects completed 3 phases of testing on an electronically braked cycle ergometer: (a) familiarization (3 learning trials to establish power outputs for subsequent testing); (b) pretesting (4 bouts performed at power outputs selected to elicit fatigue in 1‐10 minutes); and (c) posttesting (4 bouts performed at the same power outputs as pretesting but completed after ingesting the supplements 4 times per day for 6 consecutive days). The results indicated that CM and CM-CHO supplementation significantly (p # 0.05) increased AWC by 9.4 and 30.7%, respectively. These data suggest that 33 g of CHO may augment the effects of CM supplementation on AWC.

This study examined the validity of the Accu-Measure™ (AM) and the Futrex 1000 (F-1000) for estimating % body fat (BF) by comparing the estimates to values obtained from skinfold equations (Sum3). Thirty Caucasian men (age 23 ± 3 yrs) and 26 Caucasian women (21 ± 2 yrs) participated in the study. Subjects practiced, then determined their %BF using the AM and the F-1000, while skinfold sites from the Sum3 equations (men = abdomen, chest, thigh; women = triceps, suprailiac, thigh) were measured by an experienced investigator with a Lange caliper. The validity (vs. underwater weighing) for each procedure was determined by examining the constant error (CE), standard error of the estimate, r, and total error (TE). The results were similar for both genders and indicated that the AM, which resulted in the lowest TE values and nonsignificant (p > 0.02) CE values, was as accurate as the Sum3 equations for estimating %BF, and is recommended over the F-1000 for self-assessments of body composition.

This study examined the validity of bioelectrical impedance (BIA) equations for estimating fat-free mass (FFM) in 117 Caucasian athletes (M age ± SD = 11 ± 2 yrs) who volunteered to undergo underwater weighing (UWW) and BIA assessment. Eleven BIA equations and a machine-generated value (BIAM) were cross-validated. Cross-validation analyses included examination of constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), r, and total error (TE). The results indicated that the equation of Guo most accurately estimated FFM due to a nonsignificant CE (p > 0.004) (0.12 kg), the lowest SEE (1.99 kg), and the lowest TE (2.09 kg). Two equations developed by Houtkooper and BIAM resulted in TE values of ≤2.69 kg and should be considered acceptable alternatives to the equation of Guo.

The purpose of the present study was to determine the validity of near-infrared interactance (NIR) estimates of percent body fat (% fat) using Futrex-5000, Futrex-5000A, and Futrex-1000 instruments in youth wrestlers (age, M ± SD = 11.4 ± 1.5 years) by comparing them to % fat values from underwater weighing. Fifty-eight members of youth wrestling clubs (% fat, M ± SD = 10.7 ± 5.1% fat) volunteered to serve as subjects. The statistical analyses included examination of the constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), correlation coefficient (r), and total error (TE). The results indicated that the errors (TE = 8.0–16.2% fat) associated with the NIR instruments were too large to be of practical value for estimating % fat in young male athletes. It is recommended that (a) the instrument generated NIR % fat estimates be modified based on the CE values in the present investigation such that the CE = 0, and (b) the modified NIR % fat estimates be cross-validated on independent samples of young male athletes.

The present study examined the validity of selected bioelectrical impedance (BIA) equations for estimating percent fat (% fat) in males and compared their validity with that of a commonly used skinfold equation (Sum3). One-hundred twenty-two Caucasian males (X +/- SD = 12.5 +/- 5.8% fat, as determined by underwater weighing) served as subjects. Selection of the BIA equations was dependent upon meeting at least one of three criteria: 1) developed from a previous interlaboratory investigation, 2) derived on a large sample size (> 200), or 3) previously been shown to accurately estimate body composition when cross-validated against a criterion method. Cross-validation analyses included examination of the constant error, standard error of estimate (SEE), r, and total error (TE). The Sum3 equation which resulted in the lowest SEE and TE values (2.6% fat and 3.4% fat, respectively) and the highest validity coefficient (r = 0.90, P < 0.001), most accurately estimated % fat and, therefore, was recommended over BIA equations for estimating body composition in Caucasian males with lean to average body fatness. The fat-specific interlaboratory BIA equation of Segal et al. for males < or = 20% fat (N = 107) which resulted in a TE value of 3.6% fat and the generalized equation of Guo et al. (TE = 4.1% fat) may, however, be considered as acceptable alternatives.

The purpose of this study was to examine the covariate influence of fat-free weight (FFW) on age-related increases in isokinetic peak torque for leg flexion and extension in high school female gymnasts. Seventy-two gymnasts (X age +/- SD = 15 7 +/- 1.2 yr) volunteered to be measured for isokinetic leg flexion and extension strength using a calibrated Cybex II dynamometer at 30, 180, and 300 degrees*s(-1) as well as for body composition from underwater weighing. The results indicated that there were significant (P < 0.05) zero-order correlations for age versus leg flexion (r = 0.36-0.47) and extension (r = 0.51-0.57) peak torque, as well as FFW versus leg flexion (r = 0.50-0.66) and extension (r = 0.620.73) peak torque. There were also significant (P < 0.05) first-order partial correlations between age and peak torque (covaried for FFW) for leg extension at 30 (r = 0.25), 180 (r = 0.36-0.39), and 300 degrees*s(-1) (r = 0.25-0.28) but not for leg flexion. These findings indicated that for the high school female gymnasts in the present study, there were age-related increases in strength that could not be accounted for by changes in FFW. It is possible that factors such as an increase in muscle mass per unit of FFW and/or neural maturation contribute to strength increases during adolescence in female athletes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the covariate influences of body weight (BW) and fat-free weight (FFW) on age-related increases in isokinetic peak torque in young wrestlers. Two hundred fifty-eight wrestlers ([horizontal bar over]X age ± SD = 14.3 ± 2.9 yrs; range = 8.1-18.6 yrs) volunteered to be measured for isokinetic leg flexion and extension strength using a calibrated Cybex II dynamometer at 30, 180, and 300°·s-1 as well as body composition from underwater weighing. Zero-order and first-order partial correlations were used to determine the relationships for age versus peak torque as well as age versus peak torque covaried for BW and FFW. Table These findings indicated that for the young wrestlers in the present study, there were age-related increases in strength that could not be fully accounted for by changes in BW or FFW. It is possible that factors such as an increase in muscle mass per unit of FFW and/or neural maturation contribute to strength increases during childhood and adolescence in young athletes.

A preseason estimation of body composition may be useful for assigning a safe minimal body weight for female gymnasts. The present investigation examined the validity of 11 skinfold equations for predicting percent body fat (%fat) in high school female gymnasts (X age +/- SD = 15.7 +/- 1.2 yr) by comparing the values with those obtained from underwater weighing. Seventy-three gymnasts (X %fat +/- SD = 18.6 +/- 4.5%fat) volunteered to serve as subjects. The statistical analyses included examination of the constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), correlation coefficient (r), and total error (TE). The results of this investigation indicated that 7 of the 11 equations resulted in TE values that were < or = 3.9%fat (range, 3.3-3.9%fat). Of these, the quadratic sum-of-three skinfold equation of Thorland et al. (37) satisfies the most cross-validation criteria and, therefore, is recommended for estimating body composition and minimal body weight in high school female gymnasts. The other six equations with TE values of < or = 3.9%fat should be considered acceptable alternatives.

The present investigation examined the validity of 16 skinfold equations for predicting body density (BD) in youth wrestlers (mean age +/- SD = 11.0 +/- 1.3 yr) by comparing the values to those obtained from underwater weighing. Forty-eight members of youth wrestling clubs (mean BD +/- SD = 1.0634 +/- 0.0125 g.cm-3) volunteered to serve as subjects. The statistical analyses included examination of the constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), correlation coefficient (r), and total error (TE). The results of this investigation indicated that all of the equations resulted in TE values that were > or = 0.0106 g.cm-3 (range = 0.0106-0.0229 g.cm-3) which corresponded to > or = 4.9% body fat. The TE values were too large to provide accurate estimates of body composition in the present sample of youth wrestlers. Future studies should use the CE values from the present investigation to adjust the intercepts of the skinfold equations in the present study and cross-validate the modified equations on young male athletes.