Brassicaceae is one of the few plant families with the ability to incorporate the essential trace element selenium (Se) into organic compounds, and the vegetables are claimed to have a number of human health benefits based on both Se and glucosinolate content. We investigated the effect of Se addition on the nutrient composition of broccoli, purple radish and green radish sprouts and develop an efficient growing method for producing high concentration Se radish sprouts that does not impact the glucosinolate content and has little seleniferous waste. The concentration of Se in sprouts increased exponentially with time in the presence of high Se supply (9.2 mu mol Se g(-1) seed). At lower rates of Se supply ( <= 2.5 mu g Se g(-1) seed) sprouts containing a target Se concentration were produced according to the linear relationship y = 0.91x, where y is the target Se concentration in mu g Se g(-1) FW, and x is the concentration of sodium selenate in water added at 8.3 mL of water g(-1) dry seed. Glucosinolate profiles differed between broccoli and radish but the total glucosinolate concentration of the sprouts was unaffected by Se addition. Radish was more suitable than broccoli for producing sprouts high in both glucosinolates and Se.

Corpse morphology, nuclear DNA fragmentation, expression of senescence-associated genes (SAG) and cysteine protease profiles were investigated to understand cell death patterns in a cell cycle-synchronised Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspension culture treated with four physiological stressors in the late G2 phase. Within 4 h of treatment, polyethylene glycol (PEG, 20 %), mannose (100 mM) and hydrogen peroxide (2 mM) caused DNA fragmentation coinciding with cell permeability to Evans Blue (EB) and produced corpse morphology corresponding to apoptosis-like programmed cell death (AL-PCD) with cytoplasmic retraction from the cell wall. Ethylene (8 mL per 250-mL flask) caused permeability of cells to EB without concomitant nuclear DNA fragmentation and cytoplasmic retraction, suggesting necrotic cell death. Mannose inducing glycolysis block and PEG causing dehydration resulted in relatively similar patterns of upregulation of SAG suggesting similar cell death signalling pathways for these two stress factors, whereas hydrogen peroxide caused unique patterns indicating an alternate pathway for cell death induced by oxidative stress. Ethylene did not cause appreciable changes in SAG expression, confirming necrotic cell death. Expression of AtDAD, BoMT1 and AtSAG2 genes, previously shown to be associated with plant senescence, also changed rapidly during AL-PCD in cultured cells. The profiles of nine distinct cysteine protease-active bands ranging in size from ca. 21.5 to 38.5 kDa found in the control cultures were also altered after treatment with the four stressors, with mannose and PEG again producing similar patterns. Results also suggest that cysteine proteases may have a role in necrotic cell death.

Gentians are herbaceous perennials that utilize preformed crown buds as part of their perennating structure. We used leaf removal at different times in the season to assess the importance of accumulating carbohydrate reserves for plant survival during winter and subsequent re-growth in spring. Defoliation of gentian 'Velvet Glove' during the growth season significantly influenced the development of crown buds, winter survival, re-growth in spring, and carbohydrate reserves in crowns (mainly because of reduction in gentianose and sucrose concentrations). Carbohydrate reserves stored in the storage roots of crowns were likely to influence the development of crown buds, winter survival and re-growth. Given the absence of starch in gentians, the predominant carbohydrate reserve in crowns, gentianose, may play a similar role to that of starch in other plant species. From the time of emergence, at least 2884 GDD (base 0 degrees C) retention of full leaf canopy on plants of 'Velvet Glove' was required for sufficient accumulation of carbohydrate reserves in crowns to result in similar winter survival and re-growth in spring, as with undefoliated control plants. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

During the development and senescence of florets in gentian 'Showtime Spotlight', there was a dramatic change in petal non-structural carbohydrates (NSCs), including accumulation, and hydrolysis. Gentianose concentration increased more than ten-fold with the development of florets, to a maximum of 26.1 mg g(-1) fresh weight (FW) just before floret opening. Subsequently, as florets began opening, the gentianose concentration sharply decreased to almost nothing as flowers progressed from fully open to naturally senesced. Gentiobiose concentration increased gradually during early development of florets, with the pattern of increase with each stage of development being slightly behind that for gentianose, reaching a maximum of 21.2 mg g(-1) FW as florets began opening. These stage-specific changes in concentrations in each NSC were paralleled by significant changes in activity of both gentianose and gentiobiose glycoside hydrolase. In a plant system devoid of starch, and where changes in sucrose and glucose concentration were comparatively small, the stage-specific and intensive fluctuation of the unique carbohydrates gentianose and gentiobiose imply an important role in controlling gentian floret development and opening. The significant positive correlation between the osmolality of soluble NSCs and pressure potential supports the hypothesis that this carbohydrate metabolism role is via osmotically driven cell expansion. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

AIM:The present study investigated the perceived health benefits of specific vegetable consumption to guide the use of nutrition and health claims on vegetable marketing collateral.METHODS:Free elicitation and consumer ranking data were collected through an online survey of 1000 adults from across Australia and analysed for the perceived importance of vegetables in the daily diet, number of serves consumed per day, knowledge about health-related benefits of specific vegetables and perceived health benefits of vegetable consumption.RESULTS:The importance of vegetables in the diet and daily vegetable consumption was higher in people from an English-speaking background, females, people aged 45 years and over and people living in non-metropolitan areas. Digestion was selected as the major health benefit from consumption of specific vegetables. However, understanding of the health benefits of specific vegetable consumption was relatively low among consumers. Half of the respondents were not sure of the health benefits associated with specific vegetables, except for carrots and spinach. Some respondents volunteered nutrient content or other information.CONCLUSIONS:There was no clear indication that consumers understand the specific health benefits conferred by consumption of vegetables. Nutrient and health benefit labelling therefore has the capacity to enhance knowledge of vegetable consumers. It is recommended that health benefit labelling be tailored to promote greater consumption of vegetables in those demographic groups where vegetable consumption was lower. The present study assists the Australian vegetable industry in helping consumers make more informed consumption choices.

Crown buds are an important determinant of yield and quality in the production of flowering shoots in gentians. While anecdotally it has been reported that the harvesting of flowering shoots can have a negative effect on the formation of crown buds, the current study endeavoured to quantify what, if any, relationship existed between shoots and crown-bud formation. Plants of genotype '03/04-114' and the cultivar 'Showtime Spotlight' were used. Clusters of crown buds mainly formed at the base of developing floral shoots. At the end of the growing season total crown-bud number (TCBN) was determined by both crown-bud cluster number (CN) and crown-bud number per cluster (CBNC). While there was no correlation between CN and CBNC for either genotype 03/04-114 or 'Showtime Spotlight', shoot number (SN) was positively correlated with CN (03/04-114: r(2)=0.48; P=0.004 and 'Showtime Spotlight': r(2)=0.52; P<0.001), but not with CBNC. As there was no evidence of a positive correlation between SN and CN following extended periods of defoliation of genotype 03/04-114 (r(2)=0.14; P=0.29), the likely implications of shoot removal and defoliation are discussed in terms of photo-assimilate acquisition and/or hormonal control of development of clusters of crown buds.

This paper investigates the influence of postharvest science on the New Zealand floriculture industry and then considers how new drivers of the affluent flower consumers (i.e., environmentally sustainable production) might be addressed by the NZ industry in the future. Market demand trends have historically been achieved through delivering novelty (e.g., new genetics or new crops), 'massaging' harvest windows to meet demand (production technologies), understanding plant physiology to deliver quality products (postharvest technologies), and through marketing techniques (targeting specific demographics, social obligations, cultural influences, value perceptions). The role of postharvest science has been to support delivery of quality products, usually defined by having an optimal vase life. This research meets the needs of our 'direct' customers: the exporters, and wholesale and retail marketers. Rarely do we consider the purchase drivers for end-consumers. As the NZ floriculture industry strives to deliver into high-value niche markets around the world, there is a need to better understand the drivers of our end-consumers. To this end, we believe there is an opportunity for postharvest science working in conjunction with preharvest science to support more sustainable production of cut flowers.

The mature pigmented spathe of Zantedeschia is characterized by a developmental process, wherein the spathe regreens after anthesis and prior to senescence of the inflorescence. Previous research has shown that spathe regreening involves redifferentiation of chloroplasts and re-accumulation of chlorophyll, but the detailed physiological changes associated with regreening are still largely unknown. Using Zantedeschia aethiopica and the Zantedeschia pentlandii variety 'Best Gold' as models, this study explores the physiological mechanism and possible roles of fructification, 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) and gibberellin (GA3 ) in induction or progression of spathe regreening. Application of BAP stimulated regreening in spathe tissue of 'Best Gold' by enhancing accumulation of carotenoid and chlorophyll, and also increasing stacking of grana. In contrast, GA3 retarded formation of double-membrane lamella during chloroplast redifferentiation, thus delaying the onset of regreening. We suggest that these actions of BAP and GA3 have a synergistic effect in delaying the onset of regreening in 'Best Gold' so that when applied together retardation of chlorophyll accumulation, chloroplast redifferentiation and accumulation of carotenoids were enhanced. The elimination of fructification did not prevent the occurrence of regreening in either Zantedeschia model plants, indicating that fructification was not a prerequisite for the induction of regreening. It is still unclear how regreening in Zantedeschia is triggered. We propose that the onset of regreening in Zantedeschia is likely to be a genetically programmed event.

Papain-like cysteine proteases are involved in many physiological processes in vascular plants, including senescence and programmed cell death. Here we report the isolation of a cysteine protease inhibitor (BoCPI-1) from broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica), and characterise its role in regulating protease activity. Biochemical analysis showed BoCPI-1 had inhibitory activity against pap am. Broccoli was genetically modified to overexpress BoCPI-1, and both azocasein assays (which provide a relatively crude measure of total protease activity), together with DCG-04 assays (which allow more targeted analysis of cysteine protease activity), were used to examine the function of the inhibitor during postharvest senescence. In broccoli heads, overexpression of BoCPI-1 reduced total protease activity, retained cellular soluble protein content and delayed the onset of postharvest senescence as measured by chlorophyll loss. Up-regulating the expression of BoCPI-1 resulted in a lower mRNA accumulation of five different senescence-associated cysteine protease genes (BoCP1, BoCP2, BoCP3, BoCP4, BoCP5). The link between the transcription of a cysteine protease inhibitor (a phytocystatin) and the transcription of the structurally unrelated cysteine proteases suggests that the changed cysteine protease mRNA accumulation patterns are the result of a feedback loop that is regulated by cellular protease activity. (C) 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

•Several synthetic plant hormones were evaluated for their influence on regreening of discs excised from the spathe of Zantedeschia ‘Best Gold’.•Application of BAP or GA3 alone at 0.1mM resulted in 1–5d delay on regreening of the spathe tissue.•The most effective treatment in delaying regreening was from the simultaneous application of GA3 and BAP in a ratio of 1:1 (v:v) at 0.1mM, wherein regreening was delayed for more than 10d.•This treatment was then tested on the entire inflorescence, resulting in a delay in regreening for between 7 and 8d.

Rapid quantitative near-infrared Fourier transform Raman analyses of the key phytonutrients in carrots, polyacetylenes and carotenoids, are reported here for the first time. Solvent extracts of 31 carrot lines were analyzed for these phytonutrients by conventional methods, polyacetylenes by GC-FID and carotenoids by visible spectrophotometry. Carotenoid concentrations were 0-5586 μg g(-1) dry weight (DW). Polyacetylene concentrations were 74-4846 μg g(-1) DW, highest in wild carrots. The polyacetylenes were falcarinol, 6-1237 μg g(-1) DW; falcarindiol, 42-3475 μg g(-1) DW; and falcarindiol 3-acetate, 27-649 μg g(-1) DW. Strong Raman bands for carotenoids gave good correlation to results by visible spectrophotometry. A chemometric model capable of quantitating carotenoids from Raman data was developed. A classification model for rapidly distinguishing carrots with high and low polyacetylene (limit of detection = 1400 μg g(-1)) concentrations based on Raman spectral intensity in the region of 2250 cm(-1) was produced.

Spathes of Zantedeschia 'Best Gold' commence regreening approximately 2 d after reaching commercial maturity. We sought to characterize the changes in pigment content and distribution during the regreening of 'Best Gold', and correlate pigment changes with colour coordinates including lightness, chroma and hue angle (H degrees). Within the 14-d period after commercial maturity, the abaxial surface of spathes turned from yellow to green, which was quantified as an increase in H degrees and a decrease in both lightness and chroma. This colour change was accompanied by a 10-fold increase in the content of both chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b and a 20% decrease in the content of total carotenoid within the subepidermis of the abaxial surface. For the abaxial surface, within the 14-d period, the content of chlorophyll a, b and total carotenoid were all highly correlated with lightness, chroma and H degrees. The highest correlation (r = 0.98) was between H degrees and chlorophyll a or total chlorophyll on a per area basis. There was a quadratic relationship between the content of chlorophyll a, b or total chlorophyll with H degrees, accounting for more than 97% of variation. Hence, measuring the change in H degrees can be used to infer a change in chlorophyll content and, therefore, evaluate the progress of regreening for future research in spathe regreening of 'Best Gold'. Some limitations of using H degrees to infer direct changes in chlorophyll content include that its sensitivity is not consistent at different stages of regreening and is only suitable for evaluating the re-greening on the abaxial surface of 'Best Gold'. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Phylogenetic analysis of gut communities of vertebrates is advanced, but the relationships, especially at the trophic level, between commensals that share gut habitats of monogastric animals have not been investigated to any extent. Lactobacillus reuteri strain 100–23 and Lactobacillus johnsonii strain 100–33 cohabit in the forestomach of mice. According to the niche exclusion principle, this should not be possible because both strains can utilise the two main fermentable carbohydrates present in the stomach digesta: glucose and maltose. We show, based on gene transcription analysis, in vitro physiological assays, and in vivo experiments that the two strains can co-exist in the forestomach habitat because 100–23 grows more rapidly using maltose, whereas 100–33 preferentially utilises glucose. Mutation of the maltose phosphorylase gene ( malA ) of strain 100–23 prevented its growth on maltose-containing culture medium, and resulted in the numerical dominance of 100–33 in the forestomach. The fundamental niche of L. reuteri 100–23 in the mouse forestomach can be defined in terms of ‘glucose and maltose trophism’. However, its realised niche when L. johnsonii 100–33 is present is ‘maltose trophism’. Hence, nutritional adaptations provide niche differentiation that assists cohabitation by the two strains through resource partitioning in the mouse forestomach. This real life, trophic phenomenon conforms to a mathematical model based on in vitro bacterial doubling times, in vitro transport rates, and concentrations of maltose and glucose in mouse stomach digesta.

Lactobacillus reuteri strain 100-23 together with a Lactobacillus-free mouse model, provides a system with which the molecular traits underpinning bacterial commensalism in vertebrates can be studied. A polysaccharide was extracted from sucrose-containing liquid cultures of strain 100-23. Chemical analysis showed that this exopolysaccharide was a levan (β-2, 6-linked fructan). Mutation of the fructosyl transferase (ftf) gene resulted in loss of exopolysaccharide production. The ftf mutant was able to colonise the murine gastrointestinal tract in the absence of competition, but colonisation was impaired in competition with the wild type. Biofilm formation by the mutant on the forestomach epithelial surface was not impaired and the matrix between cells was indistinguishable from that of the wild type in electron micrographs. Colonisation of the mouse gut by the wild-type strain led to increased proportions of regulatory T cells (Foxp3+) in the spleen, whereas colonisation by the ftf mutant did not. Survival of the mutant in sucrose-containing medium was markedly reduced relative to the wild type. Comparison of the genomic ftf loci of strain 100-23 with other L. reuteri strains suggested that the ftf gene was acquired by lateral gene transfer early in the evolution of the species and subsequently diversified at accelerated rates. Levan production by L. reuteri 100-23 may represent a function acquired by the bacterial species for life in moderate to high-sucrose extra-gastrointestinal environments that has subsequently been diverted to novel uses, including immunomodulation, that aid in colonisation of the murine gut.

As part of an ongoing programme screening new Cyrtanthus cultivars for suitability for the cut-flower market, two genotypes (PM12 and NR7) were assessed for vase life performance. Stems were harvested when florets were in tight bud, pulsed for 24 h at 5 C with one of four postharvest solutions (100 mu M A(3), sucrose 5%, Chrysal SVB (R) 1 tab/3L, Chrysal SVB (R) 2 tabs/3L) or water, then packed in boxes to simulate transport for 48 h, after which vase life was assessed. Flower senescence was defined as when tepals showed the first signs of blue colouration and translucence at the margins, and the end of vase life was defined when 50% or more of the florets on a stem showed signs of tepal senescence. Mean vase life was 14.2 d for PM12 and 15.4 d for NR7 in water alone. PM12 vase life was improved by 3.3 d, and NR7 vase life was improved by 1.5 d when pulsed with either GA(3) or Chrysal SVB (R) 1 tab/3 L. The majority of florets (90% for PM12, 86% for NR7) were fully open before senescence started. There was no significant difference between treatments in the rate of floret abortion in PM12. A lower proportion of floret abortion was observed in NR7 that had been pulsed with GA(3), whereas the Chrysal SVB (R) 1 tab/3 L treatment resulted in a high proportion of aborted florets in NR7 (27%). There was no significant difference between treatments in stem splitting for PM12 but sucrose treatment reduced the incidence of stem splitting in NR7. Flower colour was not significantly affected by any treatments. Stem colour was significantly different with sucrose pulsing, resulting in greater yellowing of stems in both genotypes. Further studies may establish a link between parentage and response to pulsing solutions to extend vase life.

Vase solutions of 2.5 or 5% (w/v) sucrose markedly reduced the abscission of all open florets and buds on cut Agapanthus praecox stems. Pulsing cut stems with these solutions was not as effective as continuous treatments. Pulse treatments with 10% sucrose for 4–24h were relatively ineffective at reducing floret and bud abscission but longer pulses of 48h reduced abscission. The relative ineffectiveness of sucrose pulse treatments appeared to be due to the low water uptake of the stems (1–3ml/day). Reducing the number of florets and buds on an inflorescence reduced abscission of florets and buds, and increasing stem length from 25 cm to 50 cm decreased bud abscission. This reduction in abscission is possibly due to the increased availability of assimilates for the remaining buds and florets or reduced competition for assimilates. Exogenous ethylene treatments (9µl/L for up to 24h) had no effect on abscission, although STS treatment (4mM, 4h) significantly reduced floret abscission when stems were held in vase solutions of sucrose. We conclude that postharvest floret abscission in A. praecox is influenced primarily by the availability of assimilates to the developing florets.

This review introduces the reader to a cut flower that has been developed from a wild-grown South African native plant. New Zealand’s growers, breeders, production and postharvest researchers have optimised cultivation, harvest and postharvest care of Sandersonia aurantiaca so that cut flowers can be exported to northern hemisphere destinations for maximum returns (in their out-of-season production window). Sandersonia is a lileaceous cut flower comprising bright orange lantern-like flowers on wiry stems that also hold bright green lancolate leaves. There is only one species in the Sandersonia genus, and breeding initiatives have been undertaken to increase the genetic diversity of the crop in order to expand flower colour and form. This review will show that plant production, postharvest management and an ongoing breeding programme are all essential for success of sandersonia in the future market place. It will also review recent molecular research, showing how our understanding of the metabolic processes that influence the rate of flower senescence has advanced. _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Re-greening of spathe tissue is a primary determinant limiting the post harvest quality of Zantedeschia as both a cut flower and pot plant. In the absence of any detailed description of the pattern of re-greening in Zantedeschia hybrids, the changes in spectrophotometric a/b ratio, pigment concentration and plastid differentiation in both abaxial and adaxial surface of the spathe were investigated using a model system of discs of spathe tissue. For the cultivar 'Best Gold', the a/b ratio of the adaxial surface decreased over time from harvest maturity at a slower rate than that of the abaxial surface. Re-greening in the abaxial surface of spathe tissue was concomitant with the increase in chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, while no chlorophyll was detected in adaxial surface over the 14-day period of re-greening. For both surfaces, total carotenoids decreased as re-greening proceeded, but regreening primarily resulted from chlorophyll masking the carotenoids present. During development of the spathe from green-bud to fully re-greened, plastids re-differentiated from chloroplast to chromoplasts to chloroplast on the adaxial surface, while plastids differentiated from proplastid to chromoplast on the abaxial surface.

South Africa has a large number of indigenous geophytes and many of these have been developed as cut flower crops. Sandersonia aurantiaca Hook. is one of the geophytes to be developed in the latter half of the 20th century. Most of the development work leading "domestication" of sandersonia occurred in New Zealand, led by pioneer growers working closely with researchers. Test marketing of the cut stems in Japan quickly demonstrated the commercial potential of the crop that derived its popularity from its distinctively shaped, golden orange lantern-shaped flowers.Today we have a good understanding of the physiology of the plant and protocols have been developed for production of high quality tubers and flowers, and for all year round production. Sandersonia has been used as a model crop for studying senescence of anethylene-insensitive flower, and postharvest handling protocols have been developed for the cut stems. Sandersonia is a monotypic species with limited genetic variation and further expansion of the crop and related species will occur with the introduction of new characteristics. New characters are being introduced through hybridisation with related genera. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We report on the production and selection of transgenic Brassica oleracea var. Italica lines with a downregulated soluble acid invertase (BoINV2). Explants of broccoli (cv. Triathlon) were transformed with an antisense construct of BoINV2 under the control of an Asparagus officinalis‐derived harvest‐induced promoter using Agrobacterium tumefaciens‐mediated transformation. BoINV2 is upregulated in wild‐type broccoli floret tissue after harvest. Transgenic broccoli lines showed reduced BoINV2 mRNA accumulation immediately after harvest compared with wild‐type. Downregulation of BoINV2 had no significant impact on the expression of a second broccoli acid invertase gene (BoINV1), but plants with downregulated BoINV2 also had lower expression of a senescence‐associated cysteine protease (BoCP5) compared with wild‐type. The total soluble sugar levels in floret tissue of antisense BoINV2 lines were greater than wild‐type tissue after harvest (up to 1.5 times higher). Soluble protein content of wild‐type tissue decreased from 48 h after harvest with an increase in protease activity. In comparison, two antisense BoINV2 lines retained at‐harvest levels of soluble protein until 72 and 96 h after harvest and had lower postharvest endoprotease activity compared with wild‐type. Antisense BoINV2 lines also had a slower rate of floret sepal chlorosis after harvest compared with wild‐type.