European municipalities are increasingly pivotal in advancing sustainable urban freight systems. This paper examines the potential of Fuel Cell Cargo Pedelecs (FCCPs) as innovative alternatives to diesel and battery-powered logistics vehicles. Despite growing technological promise and policy interest in zero-emission logistics, the widespread integration of hydrogen-powered cargo bikes remains limited and underexplored in academic research. Addressing this gap, the study applies a dual framework combining the Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) and Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations theory to analyze both structural and behavioral factors shaping FCCP adoption. Drawing on a mixed-methods assessment of FCCP deployment in multiple cities within the Interreg North-West Europe project, the study systematically contrasts stakeholder expectations and policy visions prior to deployment with operational experiences and institutional realities observed during implementation, enabling identification of mismatches between technical promise and socio-economic constraints. Findings show that while FCCPs can be operated reliably in selected delivery contexts, they did not demonstrate meaningful advantages over conventional electric cargo bikes in real-world conditions. The theoretical benefits of hydrogen, extended range and rapid refueling, were rarely required, while the hydrogen system introduced additional technical, organizational and regulatory complexity. These challenges were amplified by fragmented standards, limited refueling options and elevated insurance and maintenance requirements. Across all MLP levels, misalignments persisted: landscape pressures generated supportive visions, but regime structures and niche conditions did not provide the institutional or infrastructural anchoring needed for broader diffusion. The study contributes to transition research by illustrating how cross-regime niche innovations face compounded alignment challenges.

In light of rising sustainability demands in commercial transport, cargo bikes and light electric vehicles (LEV) offer promising alternatives to conventional fleets. However, despite increasing vehicle diversity and supportive policies, adoption remains limited due to organizational inertia, sunk costs, and resistance to change. Short-term pilot projects, while useful for testing feasibility, often fail to capture the evolving and context-specific dynamics of fleet integration. To address this gap, we introduce and evaluate a novel long-term trial framework implemented across multiple German regions over a 12-month period. The framework embeds vehicle trials into daily operations and combines tailored onboarding, sustained engagement, and structured reflection phases. This article makes three core contributions. First, it advances both academic and practical understanding by introducing a reliable and transferable framework for long-term fleet transformation that functions as an organizational learning device. Second, it uncovers context-specific and time-sensitive challenges of integrating LEVs and cargo bikes, as shown through five stylized cases across logistics, manufacturing, services, and craft sectors. Third, it conceptualizes three learning-based pathways of organizational commitment to fleet transformation: fleet expansion, vehicle substitution, and purchase prevention, through which long-term trials can support learning-based fleet reconfiguration, including normative learning reflected in the strategic reframing of alternative vehicles. The findings highlight the value of long-term trials in supporting adaptive and real-world transitions that extend beyond the scope of short-term studies. By fostering deeper organizational learning and aligning vehicle solutions with operational realities, the framework establishes critical conditions for sustained adoption and contributes to the broader transition toward more sustainable transport practices.

To address the adverse effects of urban freight, downshifting to smaller vehicles, such as cargo bikes, has been indicated as a viable solution. Existing literature on freight mode choice rarely considers vehicles smaller than truck size. We aimed to fill this research gap by quantifying how vehicular, operational, trip-based, contextual, and individual determinants influenced the decision between cargo bikes and cars in urban logistics. To that end, a stated preference survey was conducted among 537 German organizations after they had been familiarized with cargo bikes through a 3-month vehicle trial period. Participants then took part in a survey in which they had to choose between the modes cargo bike, car, or neither of these two alternatives. The survey data were analyzed using a mixed logit model with 4,833 observations. The model estimations demonstrated that the values and signs of parameters were in accordance with both our expectations and the literature. The results indicated that cargo bikes were an attractive alternative to cars for delivery and service trips of short duration in fair weather. The probability of choosing a cargo bike over a car could be further increased by improving bike infrastructure or imposing parking limitations. The preference for cargo bike could be observed for respondents in dense urban centers and low-density parts of the country alike. Around 3 out of 10 respondents decided to buy their own cargo bike after the study, demonstrating the effectiveness of low-threshold testing programs in changing habits toward more sustainable mobility solutions.

ZusammenfassungDieser Beitrag beleuchtet die Vielfalt der Nutzungsmöglichkeiten von Lastenrädern im gewerblichen Einsatz, welche sich am stetig wachsenden Interesse von privatwirtschaftlichen und öffentlichen Organisationen an der Lastenradnutzung zeigt. Am Beispiel der rund 750 Teilnehmenden an einem deutschlandweiten Lastenrad-Testprogramm werden gewerbliche Nutzer charakterisiert. Des Weiteren bietet der Beitrag einen Vorschlag zur Segmentierung der äußerst heterogenen Anwendungsfelder, die sich nicht nur auf Logistik- und Dienstleistungsbranchen beschränken.

To enhance the empirical knowledge of commercial cargo bike utilization, 755 companies and public institutions throughout Germany tested cargo bikes in operational use for a duration of three months. This article provides a characterization of the users, their experiences and evaluation of the vehicle type and addresses its use and environmental impact. Three waves of online surveys were conducted over three years, and around 30,000 vehicle trips were recorded. The organizations showed considerable heterogeneity in terms of size, economic sector, and location. The study identified environmental protection and taking a pioneering role as the main motivations for participation. Cargo bikes were used more frequently for services than for deliveries, with an average of 2.8 days per week and 12 km per day of use. The general suitability of cargo bikes was positively assessed, but potential product improvement was seen, e.g., with regard to the handling of the cargo box. About one third of the participants decided to buy their own cargo bike after the test phase. The study suggests that policy measures such as purchase incentives during the market ramp-up period and improvements to bicycle infrastructure, should be taken, while the industry should improve the reliability of vehicle components and offer better maintenance services to customers.

Various alternative solutions for sustainable last-mile parcel deliveries have been piloted and partially put into operation in Europe in the past decade. However, these delivery concepts have mainly been considered in inner-city areas. There are a few examples of the application of these concepts in peripheral urban areas, where new housing is being built to accommodate high population pressure. However, it is unclear whether the delivery preferences of residents in new neighbourhoods differ from those of the population average. This research conducted a case study in the western outskirts of Berlin, examining two newly built neighbourhoods and one existing residential area. Results from three survey waves of residents (N = 645) show that conventional doorstep delivery is preferred by 80% of the respondents. Nonetheless, there is a high willingness to use alternative delivery options, and respondents see benefits in climate-friendly delivery methods. This research also examines the willingness to pay for alternative parcel logistics concepts, which seems to be too low at the moment (at around €1 per shipment) to compensate for the additional costs of an operational change. However, the results also show an increasing awareness of and preferences for new delivery concepts, thus providing practical implications for planners and logistics operators alike.

To support the penetration of cargo cycles in commercial transport, this research aims at identifying the significant influencing factors for their purchase, using data from Europe’s largest cargo cycle testing project “Ich entlaste Städte”. This is achieved by developing binary logit models for the intention to purchase (stated at the end of a 3-month vehicle trial), and the actual purchase decision made (queried three months or later, after the end of the trial). Prior to the estimation of the logit models, latent variables have been constructed using explanatory factor analysis. Based on the estimation results, factors that influence the actual purchase decision include catchment area of cargo cycle trips, daily usage during the trial phase, trial phase season, type of cargo cycle tested, mode substituted by cargo cycles during the trial phase and business sector. Furthermore, four other factors, which are latent variables constructed through exploratory factor analysis, are found to have significant influence: perception of operational, soft and cost benefits, as well as importance of deterioration of conditions for conventional vehicles. Based on the influence of these factors, policy measures are suggested under the following categories: (i) Regulation, (ii) Infrastructure, (iii) Finance, (iv) Campaigns and (v) Trial schemes. The data from the project shows the existence of a difference between the intention and the actual purchase decision (around 50% higher intent compared to realized purchase). This implies that there is a need to convert intention to actual decision, when making conclusions based on intention. A comparison, made between the binary logit models of intention and actual purchase decision, brings out the reality that the latter is influenced by hard facts like the deteriorating conditions (e.g., vehicle access restrictions) for conventional vehicles, while the former is influenced by operational concerns towards cargo cycles. This observation suggests the necessity of formulating measures to foster the market penetration of cargo cycles.

Within the last decade, cargo bikes have gained growing attention from municipalities, practitioners, and researchers alike. Due to electrification and model diversification, this vehicle concept is thought to be both environment-friendly and a viable solution for the last-mile of freight transport in specific urban areas. While some branches of logistics, such as point-to-point courier shipments or meal deliveries might allow for a direct substitution of conventional vehicles by cargo bikes, there is a need for new delivery concepts, such as micro-depots, to deal with the prerequisites of the parcel market. This article introduces historic developments and recent characteristics of cargo bikes and their deployment for freight transport. Knowing the infrastructural particularities and experiences from "real life" applications helps understanding the potential and limitations of this type of commercial vehicle.

A variety of drivers and barriers for the adoption of cargo cycles has been described in contemporary academic literature. This paper aims at reducing this complexity by identifying their underlying factor structure. To achieve this aim, 389 organizations interested in cargo cycles rated their agreement towards the adoption of cargo cycles with 23 literature-derived drivers and barriers. An exploratory factor analysis yielded three driver factors (soft factors, cost benefits and urban advantages) and four barrier factors (vehicle limitations, worries and perils, riders' concerns and infrastructure constraints) which are interpreted and discussed.

Cargo cycles are gaining more interest among commercial users from different business sectors, and they compete with cars in urban commercial transport. Though many studies show the potential of cargo cycles, there is still a reluctance to deploy them. One possible reason for this is the lack of knowledge regarding their suitability in relation to travel time. Therefore, this study aims to explore cargo cycles’ travel time performance by quantifying the travel time differences between them and conventional vehicles for commercial trips. The authors compare real-life trip data from cargo cycles with Google’s routed data for cars. By doing this, the authors explore the factors affecting the travel time difference and propose a model to estimate this difference. The attributes for the model were selected keeping in mind the ease of obtaining values for the variables. Results indicate cycling trip distance to be the most significant variable. The study shows that expected travel time difference for trips with distances between 0 and 20 km (12.4 mi) ranges from -5 min (cargo cycle 5 min faster) to 40 min with a median of 6 min. This value can decrease if users take the optimal cycling route and the traffic conditions are worse for cars. Although what is an acceptable amount of travel time difference depends on the user, practitioners can be certain of the travel time difference they can expect, which enables them to assess the suitability of cargo cycles for their commercial operations.

Densely populated cities in Europe are getting more and more under political and juridical pressure because they fail in meeting EU directive 2008/50/EC, which obliges cities to reduce harmful externalities (NOx, SOx, PM etc.) caused by the transport sector. City administrations in England, Germany and France are even considering banning Diesel engines from city centers. Logistics could contribute to emission reductions by switching to other vehicles on the last mile. This paper proposes a simplified but very effective approach (SEAM) to simulate different delivery concepts by fulfilling parcel deliveries with cargo cycles instead of conventional vans. The number of parcels, the volume, the driving time, the contact time with the recipient, and size of the catchment area are considered. Five different delivery concepts considering urban consolidation center and speed deliveries are simulated with SEAM and economically and ecologically assessed.

Cargo cycles can play a significant role in supplying urban centers, helping to decrease harmful commercial transport externalities. Some companies have already carried out initial pilot schemes using cargo cycles in order to assess technologically and economically feasible use cases. However, a structural overview of the relevant market segments for commercial cargo cycle use and suitable recommendations is lacking. This paper provides results from an extensive empirical survey, based on desk research and 45 expert interviews with corporate fleet managers, urban planners, and representatives from municipalities and bicycle associations. Hidden potentials can be found not only in logistics industries, but also in businesses offering home deliveries and other services. Insight into drivers, constraints and companies' requirements allows recommendations to be derived for municipalities to stimulate cargo cycles' market penetration. These recommendations address regulative frameworks, strategic urban planning, infrastructure adjustments, testing programs, collaborations with the private sector, platforms for knowledge transfer, and the use of cargo cycles by public authorities.

One of many approaches to react to the challenges faced by urban freight can be the introduction of electric cargo bikes as an environmentally friendly mode of transport for courier deliveries. Since this market consists of highly decentralized decision-making structures, it is important to characterize the individuals involved and their perceptions in order to estimate market potentials and identify barriers to market uptake. To achieve this goal, we use information from a nationwide survey to draw a picture of the messengers involved as well as to model a binary decision of innovation rejection. The results indicate a group of people close to the general population but with certain particularities regarding gender, education and work style. Their attitudes towards technology are rather positive but their actual adoption of electric cargo bikes shows a much more heterogeneous pattern based on socio-demographics, job circumstances and personal characteristics.

Light and heavy duty commercial vehicles are a cause of concern in urban areas because of their cumulative stress on the system in terms of air pollution, congestion, and noise. This cumulative stress is expected to increase with the expected growth in commercial vehicle movements. While electric commercial vehicles (ECVs) may provide a possible technological solution, the research on the market penetration of ECVs is scarce. This study proposes a comprehensive framework for understanding the motivations and barriers of small and medium-size firms to the introduction of ECVs in commercial vehicle fleets. The framework is based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), and it is modelled with a structural equation model with latent variables. The model is estimated on the basis of 1443 responses from a large-scale survey in Austria, Denmark, and Germany. The results establish a linkage between the ECV procurement intentions, the TPB constructs (i.e., positive attitudes and subjective norms towards ECVs, familiarity with ECVs and perceived operational ease) and their relative importance. It also provides information regarding the relationship between the TPB constructs and the characteristics of the fleet manager as the individual decision maker, the industrial sector and the fleet management and tour pattern. Last, it provides insights regarding the transferability of the revealed TPB- ECV procurement intentions across industrial sectors and across countries.

With the requirements of European Commission's White Book that demand emission-free city logistics in major urban areas until 2050, cargo bicycles may play a significant role for last mile deliveries. They require less space than vans and can be parked on the sidewalk. These electrically assisted bicycles, tricycles or quadracycles do not emit any local emissions and are capable to transport 50-250 kg of cargo. But, in topologically moved areas the capacity of conventional battery concepts constrains the transport range: delivery tours by bike can have a daily mileage up to 50-80 km. In the urge of finding energy carriers with a higher energy density than lithium-ion batteries hydrogen comes into the focus for innovative and sustainable cargo bike propulsion systems. This paper outlines the DLR activities to develop a versatile hydrogen fuel cell and its thermal management which suits the transport needs of commercial last mile deliveries with cargo bikes. First studies show that cargo cycles have high potentials not only in postal services but also for the growing courier and parcel service. Active thermal management systems to increase the range and the hill climb capability, the life time and the operational capability like shortening the refilling time are introduced in this paper.