There is global concern regarding the fate and effects of microplastics in the environment, particularly in aquatic systems. In the present study, ethylene acrylic acid copolymer particles were evaluated in a chronic toxicity study with the aquatic invertebrate Daphnia magna. The study design included a natural particle control treatment (silica) to differentiate any potential physical effects of a particle from the intrinsic toxicity of the test material. In addition to the standard endpoints of survival, growth, and reproduction, the transcriptomic profiles of control and ethylene acrylic acid copolymer-exposed D. magna were evaluated at the termination of the 21-d toxicity study. No significant effects on D. magna growth, survival, or reproduction were observed in comparison with both particle and untreated control groups. Significant transcriptomic alterations were induced at the highest treatment level of 2.3 × 1012 particles of the ethylene acrylic acid copolymer/L in key pathways linked to central metabolism and energy reserves, oxidative stress, and ovulation and molting, indicating a global transcriptomic response pattern. To put the results in perspective is challenging at this time, because, to date, microplastic environmental monitoring approaches have not been equipped to detect particles in the nanosize range. However, our results indicate that ethylene acrylic acid copolymer microplastics in the upper nanosize range are not expected to adversely affect D. magna growth, survival, or reproductive outcomes at concentrations of up to 1012 particles/L. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:1578-1589. © 2020 SETAC.

Emissions of plastic waste to the environment and the subsequent degradation into microplastic particles that have the potential to interact with biological organisms represent a concern for global society. Current understanding of the potential impacts on aquatic and terrestrial population stability and ecosystem structure and function associated with emissions of microplastic particles is limited and insufficient to fully assess environmental risks. Multistakeholder discussions can provide an important element in helping to identify and prioritize key knowledge gaps in assessing potential risks. In the present review, we summarize multistakeholder discussions from a 1-d International Council of Chemical Associations-sponsored symposium, which involved 39 scientists from 8 countries with representatives from academia, industry, and government. Participants were asked to consider the following: discuss the scientific merits and limitations of applying a proposed conceptual environmental risk assessment (ERA) framework for microplastic particles and identify and prioritize major research needs in applying ERA tools for microplastic particles. Multistakeholder consensus was obtained with respect to the interpretation of the current state of the science related to effects and exposure to microplastic particles, which implies that it is unlikely that the presence of microplastic in the environment currently represents a risk. However, the quality and quantity of existing data require substantial improvement before conclusions regarding the potential risks and impacts of microplastic particles can be fully assessed. Research that directly addresses the development and application of methods that strengthen the quality of data should thus be given the highest priority. Activities aimed at supporting the development of and access to standardized reference material were identified as a key research need. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2087-2100. (c) 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of SETAC.

Emissions of plastic waste to the environment and the subsequent degradation into microplastic particles that have the potential to interact with biological organisms represent a concern for global society. Current understanding of the potential impacts on aquatic and terrestrial population stability and ecosystem structure and function associated with emissions of microplastic particles is limited and insufficient to fully assess environmental risks. Multistakeholder discussions can provide an important element in helping to identify and prioritize key knowledge gaps in assessing potential risks. In the present review, we summarize multistakeholder discussions from a 1‐d International Council of Chemical Associations– sponsored symposium, which involved 39 scientists from 8 countries with representatives from academia, industry, and government. Participants were asked to consider the following: discuss the scientific merits and limitations of applying a proposed conceptual environmental risk assessment (ERA) framework for microplastic particles and identify and prioritize major research needs in applying ERA tools for microplastic particles. Multistakeholder consensus was obtained with respect to the interpretation of the current state of the science related to effects and exposure to microplastic particles, which implies that it is unlikely that the presence of microplastic in the environment currently represents a risk. However, the quality and quantity of existing data require substantial improvement before conclusions regarding the potential risks and impacts of microplastic particles can be fully assessed. Research that directly addresses the development and application of methods that strengthen the quality of data should thus be given the highest priority. Activities aimed at supporting the development of and access to standardized reference material were identified as a key research need. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2087–2100. © 2019 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on

In vitro assays are widely employed to obtain intrinsic clearance estimates used in toxicokinetic modeling efforts. However, the reliability of these methods is seldom reported. Here we describe the results of an international ring trial designed to evaluate two in vitro assays used to measure intrinsic clearance in rainbow trout. An important application of these assays is to predict the effect of biotransformation on chemical bioaccumulation. Six laboratories performed substrate depletion experiments with cyclohexyl salicylate, fenthion, 4-n-nonylphenol, deltamethrin, methoxychlor, and pyrene using cryopreserved hepatocytes and liver S9 fractions from trout. Variability within and among laboratories was characterized as the percent coefficient of variation (CV) in measured in vitro intrinsic clearance rates (CLIN VITRO, INT; ml/h/mg protein or 106 cells) for each chemical and test system. Mean intralaboratory CVs for each test chemical averaged 18.9% for hepatocytes and 14.1% for S9 fractions, whereas interlaboratory CVs (all chemicals and all tests) averaged 30.1% for hepatocytes and 22.4% for S9 fractions. When CLIN VITRO, INT values were extrapolated to in vivo intrinsic clearance estimates (CLIN VIVO, INT; l/d/kg fish), both assays yielded similar levels of activity (<4-fold difference for all chemicals). Hepatic clearance rates (CLH; l/d/kg fish) calculated using data from both assays exhibited even better agreement. These findings show that both assays are highly reliable and suggest that either may be used to inform chemical bioaccumulation assessments for fish. This study highlights several issues related to the demonstration of assay reliability and may provide a template for evaluating other in vitro biotransformation assays.

Flame retardant producers and end users are continually looking for more sustainable solutions through innovation in their customer offerings. Successful solutions need to satisfy a range of characteristics, from processing to technical and environmental performance, which sometimes conflict. This paper covers a new class of brominated polymeric flame retardants designed and developed by The Dow Chemical Company for use in polystyrene foam to meet existing fire and use requirements and have an improved environmental profile to meet regulatory guidelines. An overview of the environmental, health and safety performance of these new polymeric flame retardants will be presented along with preliminary performance data of their use in polystyrene foam.

Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with pure carbon dioxide was performed at increasingly strong conditions to investigate differential binding of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in two impacted soils, in their sieved size fractions, and in small (a few mg) samples of industry-related waste products separated from impacted soil. The binding strengths of PCDD/Fs were shown to be different in the two soils, and in their different soil particle size fractions. As might be expected based on surface area considerations, one soil showed the strongest binding in the smallest (<5μm) sieved fraction. However, the other soil showed the strongest binding in the larger sized fractions, possibly indicating that process-related particles could be controlling PCDD/F binding. Selective SFE of various types of particles including black carbon and charcoal (separated from soil), and from a suspected process anode residue did show different PCDD/F binding behavior ranging from quite weak binding (charcoal) to very strong binding (anode particles). Shifts to the stronger SFE fractions in the soils after activated carbon treatment agreed well with the decreases previously found in the uptake of PCDD/Fs by earthworms, as well as decreases in their freely-dissolved aqueous concentrations in soil/water slurries. These results show that, as previously demonstrated for PAHs and PCBs, selective SFE can be a useful tool to investigate differences in PCDD/F binding behaviors in impacted soils and sediments and their component parts, as well as a rapid tool for estimating the effectiveness of activated carbon treatments on decreasing the bioavailability of PCDD/Fs in soils and sediments.

Atmospheric sampling for gaseous pollutants in many cases requires removal of suspended particulates preceding the gas sampler. A series of experiments was performed to determine the extent to which sulfur dioxide was adsorbed on the various material of filter holders and filters. Atmospheric concentrations of sulfur dioxide (0.05 and 0.10 ppm) were passed through plastic, aluminum, stainless steel, and Teflon filter holders with and without membrane and glass fiber filters in place. Plastic holders with membrane filters adsorbed very little sulfur dioxide with Teflon, stainless steel, and aluminum removing increasing amounts, in that order. Glass fiber filters cannot be recommended. Adsorption of sulfur dioxide was markedly increased in all cases when the relative humidity was increased from 10 to 50 percent; results show adsorption on the filter holder is more affected by increasing humidity than adsorption on the filter, except for the glass fiber filter. All materials studied would be satisfactory for...

The treatment of hypersaline wastewaters represents a challenge since high salt concentrations disrupt bacteria present in normal biological treatments. This study was conducted to determine the fate of amines in two hypersaline wastewaters obtained from an industrial treatment plant processing influents with 3% and 7% of NaCl. The compounds were aniline (ANL), 4,4'-methylenedianiline (4,4'-MDA), cyclohexylamine (CHA), N-(2-aminoethyl)ethanolamine (AEA), N,N-diethylethanolamine (DEA), N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)methylamine (MDEA), and tris(2-hydroxyethyl)amine (TEA). Mixtures of these chemicals with a mixed liquor suspended solids concentration of 1000 mg L(-1) were prepared at two salinities (3% and 7% NaCl). Ethanolamines were readily biodegraded at both salinities, following first-order kinetics with half-lives ranging between 10 and 58 h. Hydroxyl groups present in the ethanolamines had a positive impact on the biodegradation. Salinity did not affect the biodegradation rate of TEA and MDEA, whereas AEA and DEA degraded faster in 3% NaCl. After 48h, CHA was metabolized within a 24-h period in 3% NaCl, while no degradation was observed in 7% NaCl. ANL exhibited lag phases in both salinities and, in the following 24-h period, ANL concentrations dropped 40% and disappeared after 48 h. 4,4'-MDA degraded in 3% NaCl (half-life of 123 h) and remained unaltered after 120 h in 7% NaCl.

Five activated carbons (ACs) and two biochars were tested as amendments to reduce the availability of aged polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in two soils. All sorbents (ACs and biochars) tested substantially reduced the availability of PCDD/Fs measured by polyoxymethylene (POM) passive uptake and earthworm (E. fetida) biouptake. Seven sorbents amended at a level of 0.2 × soil total organic carbon (0.2X) reduced the passive uptake (physicochemical availability) of total PCDD/Fs in POM by 40% to 92% (or toxic equivalent by 48% to 99%). Sorbents with finer particle sizes or more macropores showed higher reduction efficiencies. The powdered regenerated AC and powdered coconut AC demonstrated to be the most effective and the two biochars also performed reasonably well especially in the powdered form. The passive uptake of PCDD/F in POM increased approximately 4 to 5 fold as the contact time between POM and soil slurry increased from 24 to 120 d while the efficacy of ACs in reducing the physicochemical availability remained unchanged. The reduction efficiencies measured by POM passive uptake for the regenerated AC were comparable to those measured by earthworm biouptake (bioavailability) at both dose levels of 0.2X and 0.5X. The biota-soil accumulation factor (BSAF) values for unamended soil ranged from 0.1 for tetra-CDD/F to 0.02 for octa-CDD/F. At both dose levels, the regenerated AC reduced the BSAFs to below 0.03 with the exception of two hexa-CDD/Fs. The reduction efficiencies measured by earthworm for coconut AC and corn stover biochar were generally less than those measured by POM probably due to larger particle sizes of these sorbents that could not be ingested by the worms.

Laboratory studies were conducted to evaluate the bioaccumulation of aged polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in soil near the base of the terrestrial food chain using earthworms (E. fetida) as a model organism. This research also assessed the effect of activated carbon (AC) addition to soil on PCDD/F bioaccumulation in earthworms and passive uptake in polyoxymethylene (POM) samplers. Two soils taken from a wetland and a levee along the Tittabawassee River floodplain downstream of Midland, MI were used in this study. In the untreated soils, biota sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs) ranged from 0.17 for 2,3,7,8-TCDD to 0.02 for some of the higher chlorinated congeners, which were substantially lower than would be predicted using a conventional equilibrium partitioning model. The addition of AC to the floodplain soils generally reduced the BSAF values to lower than 0.02. Amendment of the wetland soil (having a high organic content) with 2% and 5% AC resulted in a 78 and 91% reduction of toxicity equivalent (TEQ) in earthworms, respectively. More strikingly, amendment of the natural levee soil (having a low organic content) with 2% and 5% AC showed >99% reduction of TEQ in earthworms. Also, freely dissolved aqueous concentrations of PCDD/Fs in soil slurries, as measured by equilibrium passive samplers, decreased up to 99% with AC treatment. Results of this study indicate that bioaccumulation of PCDD/Fs in earthworms from historically impacted floodplain soils is low and can be further reduced by amending with a strong sorbent.

Floodplain soils containing elevated levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) were collected from several locations along the Tittabawassee River (Michigan, USA). The PCDD/F profiles of these soils exhibited distinct congener patterns consistent with byproducts from either chloralkali manufacturing or chlorophenols productions. Black carbon (BC) particles were isolated for the first time from floodplain soil impacted by PCDD/Fs. Petrographic analysis showed that BC particles, including coal, oxidized coal, metallurgical coke, depositional carbon, coal tar/pitch, cenosphere, and charcoal, comprised approximately 30% by volume of the organic fraction with size range of 250μm-2000μm from a typical floodplain soil. The BC particles with anthropogenic origin such as pitch and coke associated with the chloralkali production process served as both the source and subsequent transporter for the highly hydrophobic PCDD/Fs. These anthropogenic BC particles were enriched with high levels of PCDFs, containing approximately 1000-fold the concentration found in the bulk soil. The strong association of PCDD/Fs with anthropogenic BC directly impacts the physicochemical and biological availability thus the risk associated with these hydrophobic organochlorines in soils and sediments.

The detection and quantitation of four ethanolamines, tris(2-hydroxyethyl)amine (triethanolamine, TEA), N,N-bis(2-hydroxyethyl)methylamine (methyldiethanolamine, MDEA), N-(2-aminoethyl)ethanolamine (AEA), and N,N-diethylethanolamine (DEA), were achieved in wastewaters from two aerobic activated sludge bioreactors located in an industrial wastewater treatment plant. The streams had salt concentrations of approximately 3% and 7% by weight in Reactor 1 and Reactor 2, respectively. The use of liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry avoided the need for some sample preparation steps such as extraction, concentration, and derivatization. Ion suppression in the electrospray, attributable to the presence of sodium clusters, was attenuated by a 10-fold dilution of the wastewaters with acetonitrile. A matrix-matched calibration model averted other potential interferences. For the compounds analyzed in selected reaction monitoring mode (TEA, MDEA, and DEA), the calibration curves presented linearity in a range of 10-1000microg/L with corresponding detection limits ranging from 2 to 11microg/L, depending upon the specific analyte and aqueous matrix. AEA was calibrated in selected ion monitoring mode (100-1000microg/L), with corresponding detection limits in the two wastewaters of 74.6 and 85.3microg/L, respectively. Overall good precision (<10%) and accuracy (97-110%) were achieved for both matrices, which fell within-laboratory reproducibility. Finally, the amines were introduced into six mixed liquor samples from both reactors and quantified following the reported protocol. Again, recoveries were close to 100% with a relative standard deviation of less than 10% in all cases.

6549 Background: Three-fourths of screen-detected localized prostate cancer (LPC) has a Gleason score of <7. Untreated, such cancer has been projected to result in only 1% mortality over 15 years. However, despite serious risk of treatment side-effects, 94% of patients in the U.S. choose treatment for LPC. We surveyed, to our knowledge for the first time, how much longer survival patients expect by choosing treatment. Methods: 160 patients were studied before treatment for LPC. Their health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE) exceeded 10 years except for 2 patients. They were asked about their perceived reduction in survival (PRS) due to the cancer, and perceived benefit in survival (PBS) due to treatment for the cancer. Baseline HALE was calculated based on age and co-morbidities. Results: Mean age of patients was 61 years. Mean Gleason score of cancer was 6.5. Patients were mostly healthy, educated, and had higher than average health literacy and family incomes. 66% patients had HALE of >20 years; of them, over half believed they would live less than 10 years without treatment (PRS). Similarly, 106 patients expected to live over 20 years with treatment, but 45% of them believed they would live less than 10 years without treatment (PBS). PRS and PBS were higher in patients with higher HALE, cancer grade, anxiety, and depression, but were unrelated to race or scores of co-morbidities, functional capacity, generic health-related quality of life, social support, education, health literacy, family income, and satisfaction with life, health, and education given by physicians in treatment choices. Conclusions: Choice of treatment for LPC was associated with unrealistic pessimism regarding survival without treatment, and unrealistic optimism regarding benefit in survival due to treatment. No significant financial relationships to disclose.

Studies were conducted to assess the effects of black carbon, clay type and aging (1–1.5yr) on desorption and bioavailability of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in spiked artificial sediments. Tenax (a super sorbent)-mediated desorption was used to examine the effects of these parameters on the physicochemical availability of HCB. The Tenax-mediated desorption of HCB from the four aged artificial sediments exhibited biphasic kinetics. The fast desorbing fractions ranged from 64.8% to 22.3%, showing reductions of 4.0–18.9% compared with freshly-spiked sediments. Statistical analysis on the fast desorbing fractions showed that all three treatment effects (i.e., montmorillonite clay, black carbon content, and aging) were significant. Two sediments with higher black carbon content exhibited much greater aging effects (i.e., greater reduction in fast desorbing fraction) than the other two sediments without the addition of black carbon. For both freshly-spiked and aged sediments, the desorption resistant sediment-bound HCB (i.e., slow desorbing fraction) correlated reasonably well to previously reported rat fecal elimination of HCB, which is a measure of the non-bioavailable fraction of sediment-bound HCB. A similar correlation was also observed between fast desorbing fraction and previously reported accumulation of HCB in the rat body (carcass+skin). These observations suggest that physicochemical availability, as defined by the desorption of HCB from sediments, provides a reasonable prediction of the oral bioavailability of sediment-bound HCB to rats. These results showed that montmorillonite clay, black carbon and aging reduced physicochemical availability and ultimately bioavailability of sediment-bound HCB.

Eight propylene glycol substances, ranging from 1,2-propanediol to a poly(propylene glycol) (PPG) having number-average molecular weight (M(n)) of 2,700 (i.e., PPG 2700), were evaluated in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) ready- and seawater biodegradability tests. Uniformity in test parameters, such as inoculum source/density and test substance concentrations, combined with frequent measurements of O2 consumption and CO2 evolution, revealed unexpected biodegradability trends across this family of substances. Biodegradability in both tests decreased with increased number of oxy-propylene repeating units (n = 1, 2, 3, 4) of the oligomeric propylene glycols (PGs). However, this trend was reversed for the PPG polymers, and increased biodegradability was observed with increases of average n to seven, 17, and 34 (M(n) = 425, 1,000, and 2,000, respectively). This relationship between molecular weight and biodegradability was reversed again when average n was incremented from 34 (PPG 2000) to 46 (PPG 2700). Six of the tested substances (n = 1, 2, 3, 7, 17, and 34) met the OECD-specified criteria for "ready biodegradability," whereas the tetrapropylene glycol (n = 4) and PPG 2700 substances failed to meet these criteria. Biodegradation half-lives for these eight substances ranged from 3.8 d (PPG 2000) to 33.2 d (PPG 2700) in the ready test, and from 13.6 (PG) to 410 d (PPG 2700) in seawater. Biodegradation half-lives in seawater were significantly correlated with half-lives determined in the ready test. However, half-lives in both tests were correlated poorly with molecular weight, water solubility, and log K(ow). It is speculated that the molecular conformation of these substances, perhaps more so than these other physicochemical properties, has an important role in influencing biodegradability of the propylene glycol substances.

Bioavailability of lipophilic chemicals is influenced by the physicochemical properties of soils/sediment such as particle size, pH, clay, and organic carbon content. The present study investigated the effects of sediment composition and aging on the oral bioavailability of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in rats. Formulated sediments were prepared using various ratios of kaolinite and montmorillonite clay, sand, peat moss, and black carbon, spiked with 14 C‐HCB, and orally administered to rats prior to and after one year of aging in dark at 10°C. In the nonaged sediments there was a 21 to 45% reduction in the oral bioavailability of HCB when compared to the corn oil standard without any clear pattern of the impact of the sediment clay and/or organic carbon content. One year of aging resulted in statistically significant ( p = 0.049) reduction in the oral bioavailability of HCB from the sediments compared to the corn oil standard and nonaged sediment indicating stronger interactions between HCB and sediment contents with aging. The mean reduction in oral bioavailability after one year of aging ranged from approximately 5 to 14% greater than that observed for nonaged sediments. The fecal elimination of the HCB‐derived radioactivity from the one‐year‐aged sediments was much higher than the nonaged sediments, consistent with the lower absorption from the gastrointestinal tract due to lower desorption of HCB from the aged sediments. Increase in the fecal elimination and decrease in oral bioavailability of 14 C‐HCB was related to the increase in clay and black carbon.

The desorption kinetics of hexachlorobenzene (HCB) in four freshly spiked artificial sediments were determined using a polymeric adsorbent Tenax-mediated desorption. The sediments included a standard sediment (SS) prepared as per Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 218 guidelines and three derived artificial sediments prepared by supplementing the SS sediment with various levels of black carbon (lamp black soot) and/or montmorillonite clay. The desorption kinetics exhibited biphasic behavior, i.e., a fast desorbing fraction followed by a slow desorbing fraction. The addition of either lamp black soot or montmorillonite clay resulted in the reduction of the fast desorbing fraction (Ffast) of HCB in three derived sediments compared with SS sediment. Both black carbon and montmorillonite clay treatment effects on the fast desorbing fraction were statistically significant for the four artificial sediments. The black carbon treatment (i.e., addition of 0.5% wt/wt lamp black soot) effect was an average reduction of Ffast by approximately 11%, whereas the montmorillonite treatment (i.e., addition of 15% wt/wt montmorillonite clay) effect was an average reduction of Ffast by approximately 17%. The presence of soot black carbon particles reduced the desorption rate of HCB in sediments since black carbon exhibits very high sorption capacity and extremely slow diffusion rate compared with those of the natural organic matter in sediment.

In a previous study the biodegradation of hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) was reported to occur under realistic environmental concentrations in soils and freshwater aquatic sediments with biotransformation half-lives ranging from approximately 2 days to 2 months. In this study we extend our knowledge as to the environmental behavior of HBCD with respect to the fate of the three major diastereomers of HBCD (alpha, beta, and gamma) as well as to the identification of major intermediate metabolites formed during degradation. Substantial biological transformation of the alpha-, beta-, and gamma-[14C]HBCD diastereomers was observed in wastewater (i.e., digester) sludge and in freshwater aquatic sediment microcosms prepared under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Concomitant with the loss of [14C]HBCD in these matrixes there was a concurrent production of three [14C]products. Using a combination of high performance liquid chromatography atmospheric pressure photoionization mass spectrometry and gas chromatography electron impact ionization mass spectrometry these metabolites were identified as tetrabromocyclododecene, dibromocyclododecadiene, and cyclododecatriene. We propose that HBCD is sequentially debrominated via dihaloelimination where at each step there is the loss of two bromines from vicinal carbons with the subsequent formation of a double bond between the adjacent carbon atoms. These results demonstrate that microorganisms naturally occurring in aquatic sediments and anaerobic digester sludge mediate complete debromination of HBCD.

Alpha-defensin (α-defensin) has been identified as a potential marker for bladder cancer in urine by surface enhanced laser desorption ionization studies, and confirmed using both immunoabsorption and immunodepletion studies. The objective of this study was to investigate the role of α-defensin in bladder cancer. Immunohistochemical analysis of tissue sections showed that α-defensin peptides are frequently expressed in bladder cancer cells. It is noteworthy that expression of α-defensins increased with tumor invasiveness. Surface enhanced laser desorption ionization analysis showed the presence of α-defensin in the T24 and A498 cancer cell lines. These cell lines show higher classically aggressive in vitro characteristics compared with the J82 cells that did not express α-defensin. Exogenously added α-defensin increased the proliferation and motility/invasiveness of these cell lines using respective assays. It is interesting that α-defensin peptides increased intracellular calcium ions (Ca2+). These data are consistent with a role for α-defensin in bladder cancer via modulation of cell motility and invasiveness using common intracellular signals, such as Ca2+. We propose that autocrine tumor expression of α-defensins may play an important role in facilitating the invasive phenotype of bladder cancer in patients.