Larry, a white adult male in his mid-20s who dropped out of high school several years ago, enrolled in an Adult Basic Education program through the local community college to study for a high school equivalency exam. At one point in his program, Larry was struggling to learn some basic math concepts. His progress was slow, and he was having a hard time concentrating and staying with his learning tasks. One day, Larry seemed particularly frustrated and upset with his lack of progress. He angrily tossed his pencil across the table and pushed back his chair. With his arms folded across his chest, and slouching back in his chair, Larry explained that he couldn't see the point of learning "this stuff," saying that it didn't have anything to do with his life. Larry said he wanted to learn something that was meaningful and relevant to his interests, like pottery.

The generative framework of transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 1978; Taylor and Cranton, 2012) has recently found wide application in higher education 'high impact' learning experiences (e.g. study abroad, international service learning and practice, etc.). Scholars and practitioners, however, struggle to operationalize the theory in such a way that transformative outcomes associated with high impact learning experiences can be effectively measured and documented. This chapter discusses an on-going project to construct and pilot various methods for measuring transformative learning. To operationalize the theory, Hoggan's (2016) taxonomy of transformative learning constructs is aligned with the 17 scales of the Beliefs, Events, and Values Inventory or BEVI (Shealy, 2016). Transformative learning theory is also operationalized qualitatively with the Valid Assessment of Learning in Undergraduate Education (VALUE) rubrics of the Association of American Colleges and Universities (Rhodes and Finley, 2013). We conclude by discussing future directions of this exploratory theoretical work and its potential applications.

Over 40 years ago, Jack Mezirow introduced the idea of transformative learning (TL) to the adult education community. Representing a profound shift in how one thinks and feels about one’s self and the socio-cultural context in which one is embedded, transformative learning has since evolved to reflect numerous theoretical lenses and its framework continues to be extended and elaborated. As TL theory expands within different contexts and across different disciplines, particularly within postsecondary education, the term transformative learning is often employed with scant connection to the theoretical framework in which it was initially grounded. Learners and educators alike frequently describe learning experiences as transformative, yet little consensus exists around a definition of transformative leaning However, if the field is to continue to evolve theoretically, we cannot accept these claims of transformation at face value. The phenomenon must be measured in some manner. The field continues to struggle with several perennial issues related to assessment. This special issue of the Journal of Transformative Education seeks to address the need to wrestle with these underlying theoretical and conceptual issues by critiquing the state of the field, introducing new approaches to operationalizing the phenomenon, and advancing new trajectories for research. We approach this charge through two major threads explored through eight papers that represent Methodological Innovations and Cases of Methodological Application. We close this introduction to the Special Issue with key themes represented in the eight papers and recommendations for addressing the challenges of assessing the processes and outcomes of transformative learning.

This chapter explores how U.S. quality indicators for online education are perceived by Chinese online faculty. Thirty-one quality indicators from the U.S. literature were analyzed to develop a survey that was administered to 400 Chinese online faculty and their teaching assistants at a Chinese institution. The results indicate that U.S. quality indicators for online education are perceived by Chinese faculty as relevant and valuable. Based on responses to this survey, however, the U.S. based standards do not fully capture the essence of quality for online education because these indicators focus more on inputs rather than outcomes. The findings underscore the importance of the local settings in determining the characteristics of online education quality. Chinese scholars and administrators should not blindly adopt quality standards from other countries but use them as tools to help Chinese universities develop their own standards to improve quality of their online education programs.

Graduate-level study abroad represents an important and expanding dimension of efforts to internationalize Higher Education (HE) in the United States (US). Graduate study abroad represents a kind of learning experience that is informed by its location within graduate education. Using transformative learning theory, the authors conducted a qualitative study of 52 doctoral students who participated in study abroad programs in four countries. The findings suggest that students use multiple frames to make sense of these experiences and can be characterized as academic, relational, or deep. These frames reflect varying levels of engagement of the student's self, indicating a complex integration of the personal and professional in the study abroad experience. Analysis of narratives suggests that the dominant impact of the experiences was an expansion of the students' sociolinguistic awareness. Few students provided narratives indicating reflection on and questioning of their psychological frames of reference, suggesting possible constraints of the overall program design, pedagogy, or both.

This paper presents results from two pilot training groups in a professional development program for university teachers with the aim of improving their pedagogical knowledge and thinking. The courses represented the first structured attempt in Padova as well as in Italy to promote staff development and therefore to enhance academic innovation and educational change. The two training activities lasted 40 hours each and involved a group of 12 volunteer senior faculty (associate and full professors) and another group of 18 volunteer junior faculty (assistant professors) belonging to different departments of the University. A group of Italian and American higher education experts facilitated the programs. Constructivist theories and learner-centered teaching (Weimer, 2002) constituted both the theoretical and methodological framework of this study. Theories on reflective practice (Schon, 1983), self-directed learning (Knowles, 1975), faculty learning communities (Cox, 2004), and peer observation/evaluation/coaching (Calvin, 2007, Huston & Weaver, 2008) have inspired and guided this work.The paper discusses the feedback provided by professors in these programs, based on two key questions: 1) What kind of reflection on teaching practice have they developed in order to continue the process of improvement and sharing with other colleagues? 2) Does the peer exchange and evaluation within the interdisciplinary community created play a role in teachers' new learning? Participants completed a questionnaire including 6 open-ended questions and participated in a final focus group. The qualitative data produced by teachers and the focus group were collected and analyzed using content analysis. Findings show in both cases an increased awareness on key aspects of good teaching. The majority of participating teachers had already piloted some approaches or techniques in their real classes. Participants demonstrated enhanced awareness of the critical importance of interaction with students and use of formative/summative assessment in student learning. Participants gave strong emphasis to peer learning and evaluation: the challenges and the sharing within the community constitute for them the most important and innovative element, especially in a university context that privileges individual teaching rather than collective practices. Results show an ongoing change of paradigm; although the teachers reported a lack of previous pedagogical knowledge, the reflective approach proposed by the training encourages junior faculty to constantly review their current practices and senior faculty to move toward development of departmental teachers' communities and peer coaching activities among colleagues. Institutional support is required by all of them to foster improvement of teaching and change in organizational culture.

This chapter contains sections titled: The Meanings of Work-Related Learning Different Ways to Understand the Meaning of Work Vocation, Work-Related Learning, and the Process of Self-Formation Work-Related Learning and Self-Formation Fostering Self-Formation in Work-Related Learning Curricular and Pedagogical Implications for HRD Conclusion

Within the United States and around the world, universities are increasingly sending their graduate students abroad. But we know relatively little about the learning derived from these international experiences or how they contribute to graduate-level education. Researchers at Michigan State University have begun to explore this “black box” of internationalization, providing some answers and raising more questions.

This special issue represents the culmination of a journey, which began with the introduction of transformative learning (TL) into Europe throughout the monumental task of establishing a network dedicated to TL within the European Society for Research on the Education of Adults (ESREA).Both the authors represented in this issue and the editors played important roles in this journey.In this issue, we are offered four lenses to reflect on TL and possibly reframe it.Of course, the articles were written separately, but now they are connected in the same place and our conversation can start a dialogue.These four pieces can serve to further this reflection and dialogue on what we mean by TL, how it differs from what Michael Newman (2012) refers to as ''good learning,'' and how it might be fostered within formal educational practices as well as within the informal contexts of our daily lives.To begin this special issue, John Dirkx and I would like to engage in a transatlantic dialogue.After all, we are ''researchers of difference'' (Norris, & Sawyer, 2012), living on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean, with different academic backgrounds and different languages.I am a newcomer in TL, and you are the editor of this journal.Difference is a powerful means for thinking and learning, ''food for perception'' (Bateson, 1979, p. 32), provided that we are able to transform it; and dialogue is the human way to transform meaning.TL is facing a new challenge, new differences, with a newly formed European Network that will ''interrogate'' it.So, I propose to you a conversation about this issue, its contents, and the possibilities of transformation that can be opened by dialogue.

The Problem.The spirituality of work movement placed emphasis on the importance of meaning and purpose in work and the workplace. However, the spiritual dimensions of workrelated learning remained largely undeveloped. Given recent economic developments that threaten to undo any gains achieved by this movement, it is important that human resource development (HRD) help individuals and organizations learn to engage in the inner learning that creates deep meaning and purpose in our work.The Solution.This article locates work-related learning within the spirituality of work context. Using Jungian and post-Jungian psychology, the article provides a theoretical perspective for thinking about meaning and purpose in work-related learning and the key features of educational and organizational environments that foster such learning and development.The Stakeholders.The perspective developed in this article will be helpful to teachers, trainers, and HRD practitioners involved in formal work-related learning programs, as well as coaches and developmental managers who seek to foster learning and development among their workers.

The Problem The spirituality of work movement placed emphasis on the importance of meaning and purpose in work and the workplace. However, the spiritual dimensions of work-related learning remained largely undeveloped. Given recent economic developments that threaten to undo any gains achieved by this movement, it is important that human resource development (HRD) help individuals and organizations learn to engage in the inner learning that creates deep meaning and purpose in our work. The Solution This article locates work-related learning within the spirituality of work context. Using Jungian and post-Jungian psychology, the article provides a theoretical perspective for thinking about meaning and purpose in work-related learning and the key features of educational and organizational environments that foster such learning and development. The Stakeholders The perspective developed in this article will be helpful to teachers, trainers, and HRD practitioners involved in formal work-related learning programs, as well as coaches and developmental managers who seek to foster learning and development among their workers.

More than 30 years ago, Jack Mezirow (1981) introduced to the field of education the idea of transformative learning. Building on his own experience in community development and the work of Paulo Freire, he drew our collective attention to dimensions of adult learning heretofore not well developed by others. While Mezirow has continued to develop his thinking regarding these interesting aspects of learning and development, he has nonetheless demonstrated remarkable consistency over the years with regard to his core ideas. These core ideas, however, have stimulated considerable theory-building and research across a range of practice settings, disciplines, and cultural contexts (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007). Indeed, transformative learning represents one of the most generative ideas for both practitioners and researchers concerned with adult learning. The pages of this journal over the last 9 years bear witness to this evolving and expanding nature of the concept. In addition to the creation of this journal, this idea has stimulated the founding of an international conference that is now in its 10th year (http://meridianuniversity.edu/index.php/about-the-conference), and numerous books, articles, and conference presentations. The field now even has its own handbook (Taylor, Cranton, & Associates, 2012)! Academic programs are organized around the idea and whole institutions have adopted transformational learning as a guiding theme. Themission statement for Michigan State University, my own institution, states, “our mission is to advance knowledge and transform lives” (http://president.msu.edu/mission/). Indeed, it is hard to overstate the influence that this idea has had across a wide spectrum of educational practices and international contexts.

This paper reports on the identity work in which adult learners engage who are participating in a graduate, short-term, study-abroad program in higher and adult education. We have known for some time that international and inter-cultural experiences might foster transformative learning among adult participants. Over fifteen years ago, Taylor (1994) suggested that intercultural experiences may trigger transformative learning, a finding essentially reiterated by Lyon (2002). Although these experiences were not specifically study abroad, the researchers noted changes among participating individuals in motivations, attitudes, values, meaning perspectives, and self-identity. Similar results have been reported for undergraduate students participating in traditional, study abroad programs (Dolby, 2004; Dwyer, 2004). Although many graduate programs in higher and adult education, as well as other disciplines such as law and social work, now feature international study tours or short-term study abroad programs, few studies have focused on participants’ experiences in these programs. In a recent text on international education, Robert Selby (2008) wrote, “It has become cliche to promote study abroad as a ‘life transforming’ experience’ but, he goes on to say, “I am not sure any of us understand what we mean by the expression ‘life-transforming’ or even if students know what they intend (p. 1)”. If we are going to argue for international experiences as potentially transformative, he suggested, we need empirical evidence to support this claim. The purpose of this research was to explore how adults who participate in a short-term study abroad experience perceive and make sense of their international experiences. We wanted to develop a better understanding of the extent to which these experiences reflected self-identity work and transformative learning. Theoretical Framework We conceptualized this process of change within the theoretical perspectives of self-work and self-formation (Chappell, Rhodes, Solomon, Tennant, & Yates, 2003; Palmer, 2004; Tennant, 2000). Our study builds on those few studies that suggest short-term study abroad experiences may precipitate self-identity work (Brender, 2006; Dolby, 2004; Hopkins, 1999) and may also have an impact on participants’ intellectual or personal lives. While often contested, the concept of the self is nonetheless prominently featured in much of the study of adult learning (Boud, Keogh, & Walker, 1985; Brookfield, 1995; Clark & Dirkx, 2000; Kuchinke, 2005; Tennant, 2000; West, 2001). As with the study of multicultural education (Dolby, 2000), the concepts of self-identity and difference have emerged as important concepts in studies of international education and the development of intercultural competence. For purposes of this study, we regard self-identity as expressive of social relations and as constructed and reconstructed within particular discourse communities (Chappell, et. al, 2003; Dolby, 2000). That

The transformative dimensions of adult learning emphasize processes of fundamental change occurring both within the learners themselves and with their relationships with the broader world. In this paper, we conceptualize this process as inherently spiritual and discuss its implications for a spirituallyinformed transformative education grounded in the work of soul. Studies on transformative learning are well documented (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009). Many of these authors view transformation as a rational process of critically reflecting on habits of mind (Mezirow, 1991) in order to uncover distortions and replace them with more inclusive perspectives, a view that Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner (2007) refer to as a “psychocritical approach” (p. 132). However, an increasing number of scholars and practitioners are paying attention to the extra-rational dimensions of transformative learning. Relying on a depth psychology perspective that emphasizes the role of the unconscious, emotions, and the imagination (Boyd, 1991; Dirkx, 2001)), this perspective stresses a kind of alchemical transformation that seems to extend beyond our reasoning, rationality, thinking, or even critical reflection. In either case, at the core of this process of learning is the self of the learner, his or her relationship with the broader world, and notions of developmental change. This process of learning and change is experienced at both a deeply personal and a collective level. Not only is the learner changed but his or her relationship with the world, and aspects of his or her worldview are profoundly transformed. While scholars have emphasized the role of critical reflection, in this paper we want to focus on transformative learning as imaginative engagement that can be characterized as a seeing through and coming to know by way of symbol, metaphor, or image. We understand this dimension of transformative learning as inherently spiritual and, following Jung, we refer to this view as a “psycho-spiritual” perspective. This paper explores the transcendent and the deeply personal as two interrelated dimensions of the spiritual in transformative learning. For purposes of discussion, we refer to these two manifestations as spirit and soul. What Is Spirituality? Spirituality is difficult to describe or define since spiritual experiences often cannot be expressed in words, yet one knows intuitively when one has had a spiritual experience. In recent years, however, scholars have been writing about spirituality in higher and adult education. While they offer somewhat different understandings, their work reflects common elements. Looking across cultures and different faith traditions, King (2008) points out that the word spirituality refers to different kinds of experiences and practices but “They all share characteristics that are deemed to be life enhancing, holistic, and greatly supportive of human well-being in the widest sense” (p. 3). Palmer (1993) describes a spiritual experience of the world as “an organic body of personal relations and responses, a living and evolving community of creativity and compassion” (p. 14). Jung (in Corbett, 2007) characterized the spiritual as reflecting the “symbolic life” (p. x), suggesting that “We know that there is more to life than we see on the surface, because we feel a connection to a deeper love, a deeper power, and sense a call to a Larger life” (Corbett, 2007, p 2). Miller (2002) writes, “When we view life from a spiritual perspective, we see ourselves connected to something larger than ourselves (p. 95).” Teasdale (1999, in Chickering, Dalton, & Stamm, 2006) describes being spiritual as “a personal commitment to a process of inner development that engages us in our totality” (p. 7). King (2008) reminds us that “The ‘spiritual’ is often mentioned when we want to name a reality greater than ourselves, a power or presence that goes beyond the individual person” (p. 4). This something larger than ourselves has a mysterious quality that can give rise to a sense of awe and wonder. Others characterize the spiritual as an experience of mystery, of the unknown, the ineffable. King (2008) further argues that the spiritual has a deep relationship with the imagination and represents a lived experienced that is connected to our bodies, to nature, and to relationships. Tisdell (2007) refers to spiritual experiences as “shimmering moments” that occur in the everydayness of teaching practice, often experienced as Aha’s when the content, and lifeworld of the learner suddenly come together in very real and meaningful ways. These moments have strong affective or feeling components, a point Corbett (2007) emphasizes regarding an experience of the numinous or the sacred. We suspect that the reason many adult educators and practitioners do not explicitly recognize or address the spiritual dimensions of their teaching is the confusion between spirituality and religion. For some these concepts are inextricably related; however, we are not talking about religion in any formal sense. Like King (2008) our interest in spirituality cuts across a wide variety of religious traditions, cultures, and practices. In this paper, we use the term “spirituality” to mean the interconnectedness within the self, between self and other and with the unknown. Spiritual experience, then, refers to a lived experience that supports the development of the human person in a broad sense, engages the person in the symbolic experience of a reality that is greater than oneself, reflects a sense of the sacred, mystery or awe, and is deeply connected with our emotions and our bodies. While often beyond words, the spiritual refers to experiences that are deeply and profoundly meaningful. The Relationship of Spirituality and Transformative Learning There is a long-standing tradition with respect to the intersection of education and spirituality and this relationship has manifest itself in a recent surge of research projects, books, and articles on this subject (Chickering, Dalton, & Stamm, 2006; English, Fenwick, & Parsons, 2003; Palmer, 1993; Tisdell, 2003). The transformative potential of spiritual experience has also long been recognized (King, 2008) and is captured by numerous ancient stories and images within a variety of faith traditions. Recently, scholars have also turned their attention to the spiritual aspects of transformative learning (Campbell, 2010; Dei, 2002; Kazanjiian & Laurence, 2002). We argue that spiritual issues are inherent in the kind of deep learning that we understand transformative learning to be. Transformative learning evokes the kinds of questions, issues, and concerns that mirror the characteristics described earlier with regard to the meaning of a spiritual experience. As suggested above, transformative learning engages the self of the learner in deep and intimate ways both with one’s self and with the outer world. While both psycho-critical and psycho-spiritual perspectives to transformative learning suggest a process that is deeply personal and intimate, the learner develops a greater sense of self and meaning through a lived experience in which she or he realizes a connection with reality that is greater than one’s personal life. This form of learning engages the adult in relationship with an “other,” drawing one out of his or her previous frames of reference and encouraging integration with a deeper reality. We can think of transformative learning as manifesting both immanent, or experiences of soul, and transcendent dimensions, or experiences of spirit (Hillman, 2000). Experiences of soul emphasize the concrete, deeply personal nature of transformative learning experiences (Dirkx, 2001). They are reflected in emotion-laden images that seem to spontaneously and autonomously manifest themselves within the learner’s consciousness and are experienced in and through the body. Sometimes these images suggest an experience of dark or negative emotions, such as lack of confidence in one’s self as a learner, fear of failure, doubt or shame, and anger with authority figures are readily evoked within settings of adult learning. In other situations, these images may reflect the learners’ experience of joy and ecstasy in the creation of a poem, a beautiful interpretation of a piece of music, or being able to solve a very difficult mathematical problem. Whether negative or positive, the emotions arise spontaneously, beyond the learner’s ego control. Whether difficult and painful or joyful and ecstatic, powerful, emotion-laden learning experiences can, paradoxically, also foster awareness of a reality greater than the immediacy of these deeply, personal experiences. They seem to beckon the learner to a reality beyond herself or himself, to a connection with a more transcendent reality. The learner begins to see that dependency, fear, doubt, shame, anger, and mistrust of authority figures are aspects of timeless stories that transcend culture and historical periods. The deep joy and awe that arise within acts of creativity often remind us of the mystery of the creative process and the limited role of the personal self in this process. Such experiences are both characteristic of our deeply personal lives and the ageless stories of people in other places and times. These experiences bear witness to the presence of spirit within one’s life (Hillman, 2000), a life-force that seems transcendent and transpersonal, a power greater and more mysterious than one’s self. These experiences are potentially transformative because they evoke and awaken within the learner aspects of the self previously unknown, unrecognized, or unaccepted within the learner’s life. The learner no longer seeks to purge the self of the disrupting and distorting influences of emotions, images, and assumptions. Rather, the learner begins to accept these qualities as aspects of who they are and he or she seeks to know them better, to treat them as semi-autonomous aspects