Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) control measures rely on understanding of virus transmission mechanisms. Direct contact between naïve and infected animals or spread by contaminated fomites is prevented by quarantines and rigorous decontamination procedures during outbreaks. Transmission of FMDV by aerosol may not be prevented by these control measures and this route of transmission may allow infection of animals at distance from the infection source. Understanding the potential for aerosol spread of specific FMDV strains is important for informing control strategies in an outbreak. Here, the potential for transmission of an FMDV Asia 1 strain between pigs and cattle by indirect aerosol exposure was evaluated in an experimental setting. Four naïve calves were exposed to aerosols emitted from three infected pigs in an adjacent room for a 10h period. Direct contact between pigs and cattle and fomite transfer between rooms was prevented. Viral titres in aerosols emitted by the infected pigs were measured to estimate the dose that calves were exposed to. One of the calves developed clinical signs of FMD, whilst there was serological evidence for spread to cattle by aerosol transmission in the remaining three calves. This highlights the possibility that this FMDV Asia 1 strain could be spread by aerosol transmission given appropriate environmental conditions should an outbreak occur in pigs. Our estimates suggest the exposure dose required for aerosol transmission was higher than has been previously quantified for other serotypes, implying that aerosols are less likely to play a significant role in transmission and spread of this FMDV strain.

Rapid, field-based diagnostic assays are desirable tools for the control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD). Current approaches involve either; 1) Detection of FMD virus (FMDV) with immuochromatographic antigen lateral flow devices (LFD), which have relatively low analytical sensitivity, or 2) portable RT-qPCR that has high analytical sensitivity but is expensive. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) may provide a platform upon which to develop field based assays without these drawbacks. The objective of this study was to modify an FMDV-specific reverse transcription-LAMP (RT-LAMP) assay to enable detection of dual-labelled LAMP products with an LFD, and to evaluate simple sample processing protocols without nucleic acid extraction. The limit of detection of this assay was demonstrated to be equivalent to that of a laboratory based real-time RT-qPCR assay and to have a 10,000 fold higher analytical sensitivity than the FMDV-specific antigen LFD currently used in the field. Importantly, this study demonstrated that FMDV RNA could be detected from epithelial suspensions without the need for prior RNA extraction, utilising a rudimentary heat source for amplification. Once optimised, this RT-LAMP-LFD protocol was able to detect multiple serotypes from field epithelial samples, in addition to detecting FMDV in the air surrounding infected cattle, pigs and sheep, including pre-clinical detection. This study describes the development and evaluation of an assay format, which may be used as a future basis for rapid and low cost detection of FMDV. In addition it provides providing "proof of concept" for the future use of LAMP assays to tackle other challenging diagnostic scenarios encompassing veterinary and human health.

Bluetongue virus (BTV) is an economically important pathogen of ruminants that is the aetiological agent of the haemorrhagic disease bluetongue. Bluetongue virus is biologically transmitted by Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), and long-range dispersal of infected vector species contributes substantially to the rapid spread of the virus. The range of semi-passive flights of infected Culicoides on prevailing winds has been inferred to reach several hundred kilometres in a single night over water bodies. In this study, an atmospheric dispersion model was parameterized to simulate Culicoides flight activity based on dedicated entomological data sets collected in the UK. Five outbreaks of BTV in Europe were used to evaluate the model for use as an early warning tool and for retrospective analyses of BTV incursions. In each case, the generated predictions were consistent with epidemiological observations confirming its reliability for use in disease outbreak management. Furthermore, the model aided policy makers to predict, contain and eradicate BTV outbreaks in the UK during 2007 and 2008.

SUMMARY Bluetongue (BT) is a disease of ruminants caused by bluetongue virus (BTV), which is spread between its hosts by Culicoides midges. Vaccination is the most effective way to protect susceptible animals against BTV and was used reactively to control the recent northern European outbreak. To assess the consequences of using vaccination pre-emptively we used a stochastic, spatially explicit model to compare reactive and pre-emptive vaccination strategies against an incursion of BTV serotype 1 (BTV-1) into Great Britain. Both pre-emptive and reactive vaccination significantly reduced the number of affected farms and limited host morbidity and mortality. In addition, vaccinating prior to the introduction of disease reduced the probability of an outbreak occurring. Of the strategies simulated, widespread reactive vaccination resulted in the lowest levels of morbidity. The predicted effects of vaccination were found to be sensitive to vaccine efficacy but not to the choice of transmission kernel.

The 2006 bluetongue (BT) outbreak in northwestern Europe had devastating effects on cattle and sheep in that intensively farmed area. The role of wind in disease spread, through its effect on Culicoides dispersal, is still uncertain, and remains unquantified. We examine here the relationship between farm-level infection dates and wind speed and direction within the framework of a novel model involving both mechanistic and stochastic steps. We consider wind as both a carrier of host semio-chemicals, to which midges might respond by upwind flight, and as a transporter of the midges themselves, in a more or less downwind direction. For completeness, we also consider midge movement independent of wind and various combinations of upwind, downwind and random movements. Using stochastic simulation, we are able to explain infection onset at 94 per cent of the 2025 affected farms. We conclude that 54 per cent of outbreaks occurred through (presumably midge) movement of infections over distances of no more than 5 km, 92 per cent over distances of no more than 31 km and only 2 per cent over any greater distances. The modal value for all infections combined is less than 1 km. Our analysis suggests that previous claims for a higher frequency of long-distance infections are unfounded. We suggest that many apparent long-distance infections resulted from sequences of shorter-range infections; a ‘stepping stone’ effect. Our analysis also found that downwind movement (the only sort so far considered in explanations of BT epidemics) is responsible for only 39 per cent of all infections, and highlights the effective contribution to disease spread of upwind midge movement, which accounted for 38 per cent of all infections. The importance of midge flight speed is also investigated. Within the same model framework, lower midge active flight speed (of 0.13 rather than 0.5 m s −1 ) reduced virtually to zero the role of upwind movement, mainly because modelled wind speeds in the area concerned were usually greater than such flight speed. Our analysis, therefore, highlights the need to improve our knowledge of midge flight speed in field situations, which is still very poorly understood. Finally, the model returned an intrinsic incubation period of 8 days, in accordance with the values reported in the literature. We argue that better understanding of the movement of infected insect vectors is an important ingredient in the management of future outbreaks of BT in Europe, and other devastating vector-borne diseases elsewhere.

Summary1. Culicoides biting midges are vectors of internationally important arboviruses including bluetongue virus (BTV). The ecological constraints imposed by the small body size of these insects strongly influence the epidemiology of the diseases they can carry. Bluetongue virus recently emerged in northern Europe, and atmospheric dispersion models have subsequently been employed to simulate vector movement (and hence likely spread of BTV). The data underlying such models, however, have hitherto either been obtained from small‐scale studies or from outside the north‐western Palaearctic.2. The effects of seasonality and local meteorological conditions upon the daily presence and abundance of Culicoides vectors were examined using 2760 samples collected across a network of 12 different habitat types in England during 2008. Over 50 000 individuals were estimated to be in the samples with males constituting 62% of the total collection, allowing straightforward comparison between potential vector species in terms of their activity rates and seasonality. Culicoides abundance was linked to livestock density and land use. Farm‐associated Culicoides species were recorded at all sites including species thought to be restricted to this ecosystem by larval habitat, suggesting a greater potential for dispersal over land than previously thought.3. Synthesis and applications. The model developed has already been applied in a functional dispersion model to predict disease risk from wind‐borne infected Culicoides incursion into the UK and elsewhere. The study has expounded the long‐distance dispersal potential of Culicoides, essential for future prediction of the incursion and spread of Culicoides‐borne pathogens. It has additionally contributed to the understanding of the ecology of highly dispersive insect vectors.

The aims of this study were to statistically reassess the likelihood that windborne spread of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) occurred at the start of the UK 1967 to 1968 FMD epidemic at Oswestry, Shropshire, and to derive dose-response probability of infection curves for farms exposed to airborne FMDV. To enable this, data on all farms present in 1967 in the parishes near Oswestry were assembled. Cases were infected premises whose date of appearance of first clinical signs was within 14 days of the depopulation of the index farm. Logistic regression was used to evaluate the association between infection status and distance and direction from the index farm. The UK Met Office's NAME atmospheric dispersion model (ADM) was used to generate plumes for each day that FMDV was excreted from the index farm based on actual historical weather records from October 1967. Daily airborne FMDV exposure rates for all farms in the study area were calculated using a geographical information system. Probit analyses were used to calculate dose-response probability of infection curves to FMDV, using relative exposure rates on case and control farms. Both the logistic regression and probit analyses gave strong statistical support to the hypothesis that airborne spread occurred. There was some evidence that incubation period was inversely proportional to the exposure rate.

BACKGROUND:Thermal imagers have been used in a number of disciplines to record animal surface temperatures and as a result detect temperature distributions and abnormalities requiring a particular course of action. Some work, with animals infected with foot-and-mouth disease virus, has suggested that the technique might be used to identify animals in the early stages of disease. In this study, images of 19 healthy cattle have been taken over an extended period to determine hoof and especially coronary band temperatures (a common site for the development of FMD lesions) and eye temperatures (as a surrogate for core body temperature) and to examine how these vary with time and ambient conditions. RESULTS:The results showed that under UK conditions an animal's hoof temperature varied from 10°C to 36°C and was primarily influenced by the ambient temperature and the animal's activity immediately prior to measurement. Eye temperatures were not affected by ambient temperature and are a useful indicator of core body temperature. CONCLUSIONS:Given the variation in temperature of the hooves of normal animals under various environmental conditions the use of a single threshold hoof temperature will be at best a modest predictive indicator of early FMD, even if ambient temperature is factored into the evaluation.

Atmospheric dispersion models can be used to assess the likely airborne spread of both plant and animal diseases. These models, often initially developed for other purposes, can be adapted and used to study past outbreaks of disease as well as operationally to provide advice to those responsible for containing or eradicating disease in the event of a specific emergency. The models can be run over short periods of time where emissions and infection periods can be accurately determined or in situations requiring a statistical approach perhaps covering many weeks or even months. They can also be embedded within other simulation models, i.e. models which seekto represent a wider variety of disease transmission mechanisms. Whilst atmospheric dispersion models have been used successfully in a number of instances, they have the potential for wider application in the future. To achieve maximum success in these ventures, close collaboration between the modellers and scientists from the appropriate range of disciplines is required.

The risk of bluetongue incursion into Northern Ireland (NI) following the emergence of the bluetongue virus (BTV) in north-west Europe in 2006 was assessed using a series of risk assessments. As well as advising policy makers on measures to mitigate identified risks, the assessments also highlighted areas of uncertainty which required monitoring. The potential for windborne spread of midges and the efficacy of BTV serotype 8 inactivated vaccines in cattle are two such areas discussed in this paper.Using the Met Office's atmospheric dispersion model which was adapted to model midge activity, the daily risk of wind-borne spread to NI from two locations in Great Britain was monitored over a three year period. In only one year from one location was the number of risk days more than five. This information can be used within more quantitative assessments of insect -borne infections that are exotic to NI.The BTV serological status of all cattle imported from BTV affected areas was determined by cELISA over 2009 and 2010. During 2009, 32% of cattle consignments (18% of individuals) gave negative results to the cELISA. However, during 2010 only 6% of cattle batches and 3% of cattle have yielded cELISA negative results. This suggested that there was an overall increase in the BTV immunity in this population.This provides a practical example of the integration required between risk assessment and targeted surveillance and their contribution to evidence based policy. Such informed decision-making has enabled NI to maintain its BTV freedom using epidemiologically based approaches.

A scheme within the UK Met Office’s dispersion model, the Numerical Atmospheric-dispersion Modelling Environment (NAME), has been developed to reflect the effects of meteorology on the long-distance transport of these midge vectors. The scheme is based on data from field and laboratory experiments carried out at the Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright. From these experiments, certain threshold values which define when midges do not become airborne have been obtained for several meteorological variables. Within NAME, particles representing midges are removed from the model atmosphere if these thresholds are exceeded.

Following the arrival of bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV-8) in southeast England in September 2007, the Scottish Government commissioned research to assess the economic consequences of a BTV-8 incursion to Scotland. Here we present the first component of the assessment, which entailed identifying feasible incursion scenarios for the virus. Our analyses focused on three routes of introduction: wind-borne dispersal of infected vectors, import of infected animals and northwards spread of BTV from affected areas in GB. These analyses were further refined by considering the spatial and temporal variation in the probability of onward transmission from an initial incursion.

In September 2008, bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV-8) infection was detected for the first time in Sweden, in a dairy herd on the west coast. Two different previously published operational atmospheric dispersion models indicate that midges from infected regions in Europe are likely to have reached Sweden by atmospheric transport during an estimated infection window. Both models indicated that the likely dates for the incursion of midges were overnight on August 6 to 7 and August 14 to 15; however, the less constrained model indicated a number of additional possible dates. The distribution of infected herds detected by active surveillance coincides with the regions that were indicated by the models to have been reached by midges from regions in Denmark and Germany with infected herds. It is likely that several points of introduction of infected midges occurred, possibly on different occasions. No alternative routes for introduction of the infection to Sweden were identified, supporting the theory that BTV-8 was introduced by infected midges carried by the wind.

A quarantine period for potentially contaminated personnel can be used to reduce the risk of transfer of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) from infected to susceptible premises. This is set at 72 hours in the UK, on the basis of results from laboratory studies and field observations. Previous analysis of FMDV carriage within human nasal cavities has relied upon virus isolation by culture in susceptible cells. This study, involving 51 people, evaluated a PCR method, which detected viral genomic material within 35 nasal swabs taken from personnel after up to eight hours exposure to infected animals. Only one of 23 people who was PCR-positive immediately after exposure to FMDV-infected animals remained positive the following day, indicating a low risk of prolonged carriage of virus in the nasal cavities.

With bluetongue rampant on the main European Continent in 2008, why were there no outbreaks reported in the UK? The essential criteria for introduction of the disease by carriage of infected midges on the wind have been assessed for 2006, 2007 and 2008, and it is concluded that temperatures were favourable for virus replication and midge activity and that suitable winds were present on a considerable number of occasions. A major difference between 2007, when virus was introduced to the UK, and 2008 was the extensive vaccination programme implemented by the UK Government in 2008, with the support of the farming community. Vaccination reduced the numbers of susceptible animals, making it difficult for a focus of disease to become established. The authors believe that if bluetongue re-establishes itself on the near Continent in 2009, it will be of critical importance that UK livestock are fully protected by vaccination against the disease.

Veterinary RecordVolume 165, Issue 14 p. 410-412 Short Communication Sequence data and evidence of possible airborne spread in the 2001 foot-and-mouth disease epidemic in the UK G. A. König PhD, G. A. König PhD Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFSearch for more papers by this authorE. M. Cottam PhD, E. M. Cottam PhD Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFSearch for more papers by this authorS. Upadhyaya BVSc, S. Upadhyaya BVSc Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Gloster, J. Gloster Met Office, Fitzroy Road, Exeter, EX1 3PBSearch for more papers by this authorL. M. Mansley BVMS, MVM, L. M. Mansley BVMS, MVM Animal Health Divisional Office, Lamberkine Drive, Perth, PH1 1RZSearch for more papers by this authorD. T. Haydon PhD, D. T. Haydon PhD Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQSearch for more papers by this authorD. P. King PhD, Corresponding Author D. P. King PhD donald.king@bbsrc.ac.uk Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFInstituto de Biotecnología, INTA-Conicet, N. Repetto y de los Reseros, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires 1686, Argentina Faculty of Medicine, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF e-mail: donald.king@bbsrc.ac.ukSearch for more papers by this author G. A. König PhD, G. A. König PhD Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFSearch for more papers by this authorE. M. Cottam PhD, E. M. Cottam PhD Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFSearch for more papers by this authorS. Upadhyaya BVSc, S. Upadhyaya BVSc Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFSearch for more papers by this authorJ. Gloster, J. Gloster Met Office, Fitzroy Road, Exeter, EX1 3PBSearch for more papers by this authorL. M. Mansley BVMS, MVM, L. M. Mansley BVMS, MVM Animal Health Divisional Office, Lamberkine Drive, Perth, PH1 1RZSearch for more papers by this authorD. T. Haydon PhD, D. T. Haydon PhD Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8QQSearch for more papers by this authorD. P. King PhD, Corresponding Author D. P. King PhD donald.king@bbsrc.ac.uk Institute for Animal Health, Ash Road, Pirbright, Surrey, GU24 0NFInstituto de Biotecnología, INTA-Conicet, N. Repetto y de los Reseros, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires 1686, Argentina Faculty of Medicine, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright, Surrey GU24 0NF e-mail: donald.king@bbsrc.ac.ukSearch for more papers by this author First published: 03 October 2009 https://doi.org/10.1136/vr.165.14.410Read the full textAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume165, Issue14October 2009Pages 410-412 RelatedInformation

Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) spreads by direct contact between animals, by animal products (milk, meat and semen), by mechanical transfer on people or fomites and by the airborne route, with the relative importance of each mechanism depending on the particular outbreak characteristics. Atmospheric dispersion models have been developed to assess airborne spread of FMDV in a number of countries, including the UK, Denmark, Australia, New Zealand, USA and Canada. These models were compared at a Workshop hosted by the Institute for Animal Health/Met Office in 2008. Each modeller was provided with data relating to the 1967 outbreak of FMD in Hampshire, UK, and asked to predict the spread of FMDV by the airborne route. A number of key issues emerged from the Workshop and subsequent modelling work: (1) in general all models predicted similar directions for livestock at risk, with much of the remaining differences strongly related to differences in the meteorological data used; (2) determination of an accurate sequence of events on the infected premises is highly important, especially if the meteorological conditions vary substantially during the virus emission period; (3) differences in assumptions made about virus release, environmental fate and susceptibility to airborne infection can substantially modify the size and location of the downwind risk area. All of the atmospheric dispersion models compared at the Workshop can be used to assess windborne spread of FMDV and provide scientific advice to those responsible for making control and eradication decisions in the event of an outbreak of disease.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) can be transmitted in a variety of ways, one of which is through virus exhaled into the air by infected livestock. It is clear that where there is close contact there will be a range of possible mechanisms for the transmission of disease from animal to animal, including the airborne route if simple barriers between livestock exist. In transmission of FMD over longer distances, airborne transmission represents a significant challenge to the veterinary services in that the mechanism is essentially uncontrollable if the primary source of the disease is not contained. In the event of an epidemic of FMD, such as the one experienced in the United Kingdom in 2001, it is important for disease control purposes to understand the contribution made to the overall spread of disease by aerosolised virus. This assessment is based on a combination of measurements made in the laboratory and through clinical observations in the field. To date, laboratory measurements have used a number of instruments that were not specifically designed for working with FMD virus or whose performance have not been fully compared and documented. This paper compares four samplers and describes the method by which samples are processed. Overall it is concluded that there is no optimum air sampling instrument which could be successfully employed for all situations but the work provides guidance to those wishing to make measurements in the future and establishes a baseline against which any new samplers can be compared.

WeatherVolume 65, Issue 1 p. 21-26 Research Article A study of potential bluetongue vectors and meteorology in Jersey Christopher J. Sanders, Corresponding Author Christopher J. Sanders [email protected] Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightInstitute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, GU24 ONF, UK.Search for more papers by this authorLaura Burgin, Laura Burgin Met Office, Exeter The contributions of Laura Burgin and John Gloster were written in the course of their employment at the Met Office, UK, and are published with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.Search for more papers by this authorAnthony Pallot, Anthony Pallot Jersey Met. DepartmentSearch for more papers by this authorJames Barber, James Barber Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightSearch for more papers by this authorNick Golding, Nick Golding Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightSearch for more papers by this authorSimon Carpenter, Simon Carpenter Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightSearch for more papers by this authorJohn Gloster, John Gloster Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Met Office, Exeter The contributions of Laura Burgin and John Gloster were written in the course of their employment at the Met Office, UK, and are published with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.Search for more papers by this author Christopher J. Sanders, Corresponding Author Christopher J. Sanders [email protected] Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightInstitute for Animal Health, Pirbright Laboratory, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, GU24 ONF, UK.Search for more papers by this authorLaura Burgin, Laura Burgin Met Office, Exeter The contributions of Laura Burgin and John Gloster were written in the course of their employment at the Met Office, UK, and are published with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.Search for more papers by this authorAnthony Pallot, Anthony Pallot Jersey Met. DepartmentSearch for more papers by this authorJames Barber, James Barber Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightSearch for more papers by this authorNick Golding, Nick Golding Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightSearch for more papers by this authorSimon Carpenter, Simon Carpenter Institute for Animal Health, PirbrightSearch for more papers by this authorJohn Gloster, John Gloster Institute for Animal Health, Pirbright Met Office, Exeter The contributions of Laura Burgin and John Gloster were written in the course of their employment at the Met Office, UK, and are published with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.Search for more papers by this author First published: 21 December 2009 https://doi.org/10.1002/wea.444Citations: 5 AboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat References Blackwell A, Mordue AJ, Young MR, Mordue W. 1992. Bivoltinism, survival rates and reproductive characteristics of the Scottish biting midge, Culicoides impunctatus (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae) in Scotland. B. Entomol. Res. 82: 299–306. Boorman J. 1986. British Culicoides (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) notes on distribution and biology. Entomologist's Gazette 37: 253–266. Burgin L, Gloster J, Mellor P. 2009. Why were there no outbreaks of Bluetongue in the UK in 2008? Vet. Rec. 164: 384–387. Carpenter S, Szmaragd C, Barber J, Labuschagne K, Gubbins S, Mellor P. 2008. An assessment of Culicoides surveillance techniques in northern Europe: have we underestimated a potential bluetongue virus vector? J. Appl. Ecol. 45: 1237–1245. Gloster J, Burgin L, Witham C, Athanassiadou M, Mellor P. 2008. Bluetongue in the United Kingdom and northern Europe in 2007 and key issues for 2008. Vet. Rec. 162: 298–302. 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