Fenbendazole is an important anti-parasitic medicine widely used in the veterinary field and has recently been considered as a possible anti-cancer agent in humans by some researchers. Fenbendazole encounters challenges in its usage due to its limited aqueous solubility, which consequently impacts its therapeutic efficacy. In this work, an in vitro mechanistic investigation was conducted to evaluate the compatibility, amorphization behaviour and dissolution profile of fenbendazole dispersed in Soluplus® using the solid dispersion approach via hot-melt extrusion. Three different fenbendazole/Soluplus® ratios were formulated and characterised through systematic experimentation. Powder X-Ray Diffraction (PXRD), Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) were employed for thermal, physical, chemical and morphological analyses. The solubility of the drug formulation during a dissolution test was investigated using Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometric measurements. In vitro dissolution testing in acidic and neutral media was employed as a controlled environment to compare dissolution behaviour among different loadings. The extrudates demonstrated markedly enhanced apparent solubility compared to neat fenbendazole, with the 5% formulation showing the highest dissolution rate (approximately 85% after 48 h). This improvement can be attributed to better wetting properties and drug dispersion within the Soluplus® matrix. This innovative strategy holds promise in surmounting fenbendazole's solubility limitations, presenting a comprehensive solution to enhance its therapeutic effectiveness.

Background/Objectives: Fenbendazole is a potential cancer treatment and a proven antiparasitic in veterinary applications. However, its poor water solubility limits its application. In this study, potential fenbendazole solubility enhancement was investigated through size reduction methods. The effect of the presence of Soluplus® on solubility was investigated as well. Methods: Solubility enhancement was explored using microfluidization and ultrasonication techniques. These techniques were applied to fenbendazole alone and in combination with Soluplus®. UV–Vis spectroscopy was used to determine solubility. Possible chemical reactions were checked using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was conducted to analyze the physical structure and crystallinity of the samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was also utilized for characterization of the effect of the treated formulations and the size reduction method on morphology. The elements present in samples were identified with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) combined with SEM. A comparison of crystalline structure between the products was performed via X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD). Dynamic light scattering (DLS) was also used to measure the samples’ average particle size at different stages. Results: Both ultrasonication and microfluidization led to marginal increases in the solubility of neat fenbendazole. In contrast, formulations processed in the presence of Soluplus® demonstrated a greater enhancement in solubility. However, solubility improvement was not retained in the dried samples. The post-drying samples, irrespective of the presence of Soluplus®, showed nearly the same solubility as neat fenbendazole. Conclusions: Size-reduction methods, particularly when combined with Soluplus®, improved the solubility of fenbendazole. However, drying appeared to reverse these gains, regardless of the method used.

This work looks at the effects of a varying concentration, soak time, pH and temperature on the sorption of tetraammineplatinum(II) chloride (Pt-Ammine) in Nafion-117 films in the context of the electroless plating of ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMCs). Sorption is characterised by atomic absorption spectroscopy. A definitive screening design carried out determined all four factors to be significant for further analysis using response surface modelling. A duplicated central composite design (CCD) was utilised to characterise how the four factors affect the sorption amount and efficiency. Regression models for both responses were of poor fit. Nevertheless, key insights were obtained on the effects of the process parameters on sorption behaviour. The results indicate that above 0.5 g/L Pt-Ammine sorption, the platinisation of 10 × 50 mm IPMC samples through sodium borohydride reduction becomes redundant by the surface resistance metric. IPMCs with surface resistance values of approximately 2.5 Ω/square were obtained through only one round of chemical reduction. Varying surface morphologies and electrode thicknesses were analysed under a scanning electron microscope. The CCD parameter settings were validated. Recommended settings for optimised Pt-Ammine sorption in 10 × 50 mm Nafion-117 films were identified as follows: 1.0 g/L Pt-Ammine concentration, 24 h soak time, pH of 3 and temperature of 20 °C.

The use of computer vision in the industry has become fundamental, playing an essential role in areas such as quality control and inspection, object recognition/tracking, and automation. Despite this constant growth, robotic cell systems employing computer vision encounter significant challenges, such as a lack of flexibility to adapt to different tasks or types of objects, necessitating extensive adjustments each time a change is required. This highlights the importance of developing a system that can be easily reused and reconfigured to address these challenges. This paper introduces a versatile and adaptable framework that exploits Computer Vision and the Robot Operating System (ROS) to facilitate pick-and-place operations within robotic cells, offering a comprehensive solution for handling and sorting random-flow objects on conveyor belts. Designed to be easily configured and reconfigured, it accommodates ROS-compatible robotic arms and 3D vision systems, ensuring adaptability to different technological requirements and reducing deployment costs. Experimental results demonstrate the framework’s high precision and accuracy in manipulating and sorting tested objects. Thus, this framework enhances the efficiency and flexibility of industrial robotic systems, making object manipulation more adaptable for unpredictable manufacturing environments.

The effects of process parameters on the electroless plating of ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMCs) were studied in this work. Specifically, the NaBH4 reduction of platinum onto Nafion-117 was characterised. The effects of the concurrent variation of NaBH4 concentration, stir time and temperature on surface resistance were studied through a full factorial design. The three-factor three-level factorial design resulted in 27 runs. Surface resistance was measured using a four-point probe. A regression model with an R2 value of 97.45% was obtained. Surface resistance was found to decrease with increasing stir time (20 to 60 min) and temperature (20 to 60 °C). These responses were attributed to increased platinisation rates, resulting in more uniform electrode deposition, confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray (EDAX) analysis. Surface resistance decreased, going from 1% to 5% NaBH4 concentration, but increased from 5% to 10% concentration. This behaviour was attributed to surface morphology: increased grain size inducing porous electrodes, in line with findings in the literature. The maximum tip displacement, measured through a computer vision system, as well as the maximum blocking force, measured through an analytical balance setup, were obtained for all 27 samples. The varying results were discussed with regards to surface and cross-sectional SEMs, alongside EDAX analysis.

The advent of Industry 4.0 has created a need for more flexible and adaptable manufacturing systems. This paper proposes the integration of AAS (Asset Administration Shells), SBM (Skill-based manufacturing) and OPC UA (Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture), to enable more flexible manufacturing systems. The integration of these concepts provides a solution for achieving faster and easier dynamic reconfiguration in manufacturing systems, which is essential for fulfilling the demand of customization and flexibility in modern production systems. An Asset Administration Shell provides a standardized structure for describing assets and their administration, while Skill-based manufacturing enables the deployment of task-oriented machines that can self-configure, self-diagnose, and self-optimize their performance. The use of OPC UA as a communication protocol ensures that these systems can communicate with one another in a secure and reliable way. This paper presents a conceptual framework for the integration of these three open technologies. This framework contributes to having a single interface and source of information for every asset, which can lead to increased efficiency by reducing changeover times, thus reducing the overall cost in flexible manufacturing system scenarios. Future work will focus on the implementation and validation of this framework in a real-world manufacturing setting.

Injection moulding is a polymer processing method of choice for making plastic parts on industrial scale, but its traditional mould is made from tooling steel with time-consuming and costly production. Additive manufacturing technologies arise as an alternative for creating mould inserts at lower costs and shorter lead times. In this context, this study describes a series of stereolithography (SLA)-printed injection mould inserts fabricated from two photopolymer resins, utilised to mould standard tensile specimens of a commercial-grade polypropylene, aiming to evaluate effects on the polymer’s thermal and mechanical properties. Our results demonstrated that the glass fibre-filled resin inserts withstood more moulding cycles before failure, had superior mechanical properties, higher Tg and greater thermal conductivity. Calorimetric data revealed that PP thermal properties and degree of crystallinity were little affected, while mechanical testing suggests a significant effect in the elongation at break. Thus, these findings highlight the importance of adequate heat extraction during injection moulding and endorse further application of SLA mould inserts for the manufacturing of injection-moulded plastic parts in the case of prototypes or small batches, provided suitable cooling is made available, contributing to the feasibility and affordability of employing this approach for an industrial setting.

PLA (polylactide) is a bioresorbable polymer used in implantable medical and drug delivery devices. Like other bioresorbable polymers, PLA needs to be processed carefully to avoid degradation. In this work we combine in-process temperature, pressure, and NIR spectroscopy measurements with multivariate regression methods for prediction of the mechanical strength of an extruded PLA product. The potential to use such a method as an intelligent sensor for real-time quality analysis is evaluated based on regulatory guidelines for the medical device industry. It is shown that for the predictions to be robust to processing at different times and to slight changes in the processing conditions, the fusion of both NIR and conventional process sensor data is required. Partial least squares (PLS), which is the established 'soft sensing' method in the industry, performs the best of the linear methods but demonstrates poor reliability over the full range of processing conditions. Conversely, both random forest (RF) and support vector regression (SVR) show excellent performance for all criteria when used with a prior principal component (PC) dimension reduction step. While linear methods currently dominate for soft sensing of mixture concentrations in highly conservative, regulated industries such as the medical device industry, this work indicates that nonlinear methods may outperform them in the prediction of mechanical properties from complex physicochemical sensor data. The nonlinear methods show the potential to meet industrial standards for robustness, despite the relatively small amount of training data typically available in high-value material processing.

A computer vision system for measuring the displacement and bending angle of ionic polymer–metal composites (IPMC) was proposed in this study. The logical progression of measuring IPMC displacement and bending angle was laid out. This study used Python (version 3.10) in conjunction with OpenCV (version 4.5.5.64) for the development of the vision system. The coding functions and the mathematical formulas used were elaborated on. IPMC contour detection was discussed in detail, along with appropriate camera and lighting setups. Measurements generated from the vision system were compared to approximated values via a manual calculation method. Good agreement was found between the results produced by the two methods. The mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean squared error (RMSE) for the displacement values are 0.068080668 and 0.088160652, respectively, and 0.081544205 and 0.103880163, respectively, for the bending angle values. The proposed vision system can accurately approximate the displacement and bending angle of IPMCs.

Joining techniques for multi-material structures are critical for increased use of lightweight materials such as aluminium alloys and thermoplastic composites in the automotive industry. Interlocking adhesive joints (IAJs) can provide increased mechanical performance over standard adhesive joints, but manufacturing methods suitable for industrial applications must be developed. Here, three methods are examined for fabricating composite adherends with recessed macroscale features. The methods differ in the way the fabric material is draped over a mould and are referred to as "simple-stacking", "moulding-in", and "fibre-cutting". The IAJs are tested under quasi-static, 0.5 m/s and 3 m/s loading rates and the fibre-cutting method achieves the best mechanical performance. One reason is that it gives a homogenous fibre distribution across the overlap width, providing good flexural properties at the recessed features. It also results in resin-rich regions along the overlap length, which lead to beneficial "snubbing" for improved interlocking, and progressive, energy-absorbing failure. The fibre-cutting method is simple to automate and well-suited for scale-up to industrial manufacturing.

Injection moulding is a widely-used industrial-scale manufacturing method for plastic parts high volumes due to its high-scale economy and manufacture ease for several resins. Moulds are expensive and are only economical for large production batches. Additive manufacturing offers the ability to produce complex designs without moulds; but it isn't economical and is only suitable for small parts numbers. We describe a hybrid IM/AM process, which utilises AM to produce moulds for IM, employing polymer-based systems for their short processing times, high resolution and ease of finishing. Due to the printed moulds insulating nature, it's necessary to conduct trials to assess the moulded parts' properties. Polypropylene (PP), a semi-crystalline polymer often used in IM, was selected for trial. We aimed to evaluate the thermal and mechanical properties of the moulded parts emphasising the PP crystalline structure. The resins used for printing moulds were photocurable polymers, while tooling-grade steel was utilised as industry standard control. Results indicate the insulating nature of the AM inserts affected the moulded parts' crystallinity, but these parts had similar mechanical properties to parts moulded using a regular steel tool, indicating this system may be used for short and pilot runs in applications where these properties are critical.

Abstract Poly (lactic acid)/halloysite nanotube (PLA/HNT) nanocomposites have been studied extensively over the past few years owing to the interesting properties of the polymer, PLA, and the nanoclay, HNT, individually and as composites. In this paper, the influence of the screw speed during extrusion was investigated and was found to have a significant impact on the mechanical and thermal performance of the extruded PLA/HNT nanocomposites. To determine the effect of screw speed on PLA/HNT nanocomposites, 5 and 10 wt% of HNTs were blended into the PLA matrix through compounding at screw speeds of 40, 80, and 140 rpm. Virgin PLA was compounded for comparison. The resultant polymer melt was quench cooled onto a calendar system to produce composite films which were assessed for mechanical, thermal, chemical, and surface properties. Results illustrate that in comparison to 40 and 80 rpm, the virgin PLA when compounded at 140 rpm, indicated a significant increase in the mechanical properties. The PLA/HNT 5 wt% nanocomposite compounded at 140 rpm showed significant improvement in the dispersion of HNTs in the PLA matrix which in turn enhanced the mechanical and thermal properties. This can be attributed to the increased melt shear at higher screw speeds.

Poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK) is a high-performance engineering thermoplastic polymer with potential for use in a variety of metal replacement applications due to its high strength to weight ratio. This combination of properties makes it an ideal material for use in the production of bespoke replacement parts for out-of-earth manufacturing purposes, in particular on the International Space Station (ISS). Additive manufacturing (AM) may be employed for the production of these parts, as it has enabled new fabrication pathways for articles with complex design considerations. However, AM of PEEK via fused filament fabrication (FFF) encounters significant challenges, mostly stemming from the semi crystalline nature of PEEK and its associated high melting temperature. This makes PEEK highly susceptible to changes in processing conditions which leads to a large reported variation in the literature on the final performance of PEEK. This has limited the adaption of FFF printing of PEEK in space applications where quality assurance and reproducibility are paramount. In recent years, several research studies have examined the effect of printing parameters on the performance of the 3D-printed PEEK parts. The aim of the current review is to provide comprehensive information in relation to the process-structure-property relationships in FFF 3D-printing of PEEK to provide a clear baseline to the research community and assesses its potential for space applications, including out-of-earth manufacturing.

The effect of cooling on the degree of crystallinity, solid-state and dissolution properties of multi-component hot-melt extruded solid dispersions [SD] is of great interest for the successful formulation of amorphous SDs and is an area that is unreported, especially in the context of improving the stability of these specific systems. The thermal solid-state properties, degree of crystallinity, drug–polymer interactions, solubility and physical stability over time were investigated. X-ray powder diffraction [XRPD] and hyper differential scanning calorimetry [DSC] confirmed that indomethacin [INM] was converted to the amorphous state; however, the addition of poloxamer 407 [P407] had a significant effect on the degree of crystallinity and the solubility of the SD formulations. Spectroscopy studies identified the mechanism of interaction and solubility studies, showing a higher dissolution rate compared to amorphous and pure INM in pH 1.2 with a kinetic solubility of 20.63 µg/mL and 34.7 µg/mL after 3 and 24 h. XRPD confirmed that INM remained amorphous after 5 months stability testing in solid solutions with Poly(vinylpyrrolidone-co-vinyl acetate) [PVP VA64] and Plasdone S-630 [PL-S630]. Although cooling had a significant effect on the degree of crystallinity and on solubility of INM, the cooling method used did not have any significant effect on the amorphous stability of INM over time.

Exposing smart materials to electron beam radiation can induce free radical reactions, such as chain branching or crosslinking, hence enhancing the characteristics of the polymers. Poly (N-vinylcaprolactam) (PNVCL) is a smart material which was synthesised by photopolymerisation. Subsequently, samples were exposed to electron beam technology, where electron beam irradiation was utilised in a novel approach. This led to the modification of the rheological and phase transition properties. Modifying PNVCL through electron beam irradiation opens new avenues and potential applications in the biomedical field. Physically cross-linked PNVCL polymers were prepared by photopolymerisation and samples were subsequently irradiated at different dose ranges (5kGy, 25kGy and 50 kGy). The rheological properties of the PNVCL based samples were established by rheological analysis. Similarly, the PNVCL based sample polymers were further characterised in solution to determine the phase transition of PNVCL.

Since additive manufacturing processes, as we know them today, were invented in the mid-1980s, there has being an upsurge in its use as a bona fide manufacturing technique. Additive manufacturing has entered the space of biomedical applications where teeth retainers and hearing aids are commonly produced by this technique with the latter almost exclusively made so. This appears to be only the tip of the iceberg but there are a number of challenges, in terms of the process and materials, which must be overcome before the additive technique becomes dominant in mainstream manufacturing. As these are overcome, other challenges will arise such as standardisation, inspection, business models and, of course, unexpected consequences. Nevertheless, the advantages of additive manufacturing will ensure that it has a key role to play in biomedical applications.

Poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) is one of the most common bioabsorbable materials in the medical device field. However, its use in load-bearing applications is limited due to its inferior mechanical properties when compared to many of the competing metal-based permanent and bioabsorbable materials. The objective of this study was to directly compare the influence of both annealing and biaxial expansion processes to improve the material properties of PLLA. Results showed that both annealing and biaxial expansion led to an overall increase in crystallinity and that the crystallites formed during both processes were in the α' and α forms. 2D-WAXS patterns showed that the preferred orientation of crystallites formed during annealing was parallel to the circumferential direction. While biaxial expansion resulted in orientation in both axial and circumferential directions, with relatively equal sized crystals in both directions, Da (112 Å) and Dc (97 Å). The expansion process had the most profound effect on mechanical performance, with a 65% increase in Young's modulus, a 45% increase in maximum tensile stress and an 18-fold increase in strain at maximum load. These results indicate that biaxially expanding PLLA at a temperature above Tcc is possible, due to the high strain rates associated with stretch blow moulding.

Biodegradable polymers play a crucial role in the medical device field, with a broad range of applications such as suturing, drug delivery, tissue engineering, scaffolding, orthopaedics, and fixation devices. Poly-l-lactic acid (PLLA) is one of the most commonly used and investigated biodegradable polymers. The objective of this study was to determine the influence low shear microbore extrusion exerts on the properties of high molecular weight PLLA for medical tubing applications. Results showed that even at low shear rates there was a considerable reduction in molecular weight (Mn = 7–18%) during processing, with a further loss (Mn 11%) associated with resin drying. An increase in melt residence time from ~4 mins to ~6 mins, translated into a 12% greater reduction in molecular weight. The degradation mechanism was determined to be thermal and resulted in a ~22-fold increase in residual monomer. The differences in molecular weight between both batches had no effect on the materials thermal or morphological properties. However, it did affect its mechanical properties, with a significant impact on tensile strength and modulus. Interestingly there was no effect on the elongational proprieties of the tubing. There was also an observed temperature-dependence of mechanical properties below the glass transition temperature.

Oral tablets are a convenient form to deliver active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) and have a high level of acceptance from clinicians and patients. There is a wide range of excipients available for the fabrication of tablets thereby offering a versatile platform for the delivery of therapeutic agents to the gastrointestinal tract. However, the geometry of tablets is limited by conventional manufacturing processes. This study aimed to compare three manufacturing processes in the production of flat-faced oral tablets using the same formulation composed of a polymer blend and caffeine as a model drug: fused-filament fabrication (FFF), direct compression (DC) and injection molding (IM). Hot-melt extrusion was used to convert a powder blend into feedstock material for FFF and IM processes, while DC was performed on the powder mixture. Tablets were produced with the same dimensions and were characterized for their physical and dissolution properties. There were statistical differences in the physical properties and drug release profiles of the tablets produced by the different manufacturing processes. DC tablets displayed immediate release, IM provided sustained release over 48 h, and FFF tablets displayed both release types depending on the printing parameters. FFF continues to demonstrate high potential as a manufacturing process for the efficient production of personalized oral tablets.

The introduction of three-dimensional printing (3DP) has created exciting possibilities for the fabrication of dosage forms, paving the way for personalized medicine. In this study, oral dosage forms of two drug concentrations, namely 2.50% and 5.00%, were fabricated via stereolithography (SLA) using a novel photopolymerizable resin formulation based on a monomer mixture that, to date, has not been reported in the literature, with paracetamol and aspirin selected as model drugs. In order to produce the dosage forms, the ratio of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) to poly(caprolactone) triol was varied with diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)phosphine oxide (Irgacure TPO) utilized as the photoinitiator. The fabrication of 28 dosages in one print process was possible and the printed dosage forms were characterized for their drug release properties. It was established that both drugs displayed a sustained release over a 24-h period. The physical properties were also investigated, illustrating that SLA affords accurate printing of dosages with some statistically significant differences observed from the targeted dimensional range, indicating an area for future process improvement. The work presented in this paper demonstrates that SLA has the ability to produce small, individualized batches which may be tailored to meet patients' specific needs or provide for the localized production of pharmaceutical dosage forms.