BACKGROUND:Childhood trauma (CT) is associated with a range of adverse outcomes in adulthood, including increased engagement in risky sexual behaviors (RSBs). Theoretically, individuals with a history of CT may experience difficulties with regulating emotions, resulting in maladaptive behavioral responses that occur during emotional experiences. However, it is unclear whether positive or negative emotions primarily drive these behaviors. OBJECTIVE:The present study sought to compare the mediating role of positive and negative emotion dysregulation in the relationship between CT and RSBs. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING/METHODS:Participants (N = 804) recruited from CloudResearch Connect completed questionnaires assessing retrospective experiences of CT, difficulties in regulating positive and negative emotions, and frequency of engaging in RSBs. RESULTS:In a parallel mediation model, positive emotion dysregulation (PED) emerged as a significantly stronger mediator relative to negative emotion dysregulation (NED) in the relationship between CT and RSBs (contrast = |NED| - |PED| = -0.07, BootSE = 0.02, 95 % CI [-0.10, -0.02]). An exploratory analysis comparing the mediating effects of the three dimensions of PED suggests that impulse is a stronger mediator linking CT and RSBs (a3 × b3 path = 0.06, BootSE = 0.02, 95 % CI [0.02, 0.11]). CONCLUSIONS:These results suggest that the long-term effects of CT may involve difficulties in regulating positive emotions, which may contribute to sexual risk-taking in adulthood. Further, difficulty managing impulses during positive emotional experiences may be a particularly potent process driving the link between CT and RSBs. These insights can potentially guide the development of interventions aimed at improving adulthood outcomes for those with a history of CT.

Rationale Behavioral economic drug purchase tasks quantify the reinforcing value of a drug (i.e., demand). Although widely used to assess demand, drug expectancies are rarely accounted for and may introduce variability across participants given diverse drug experiences. Objectives Three experiments validated and extended previous hypothetical purchase tasks by using blinded drug dose as a reinforcing stimulus, and determined hypothetical demand for experienced effects while controlling for drug expectancies. Methods Across three double-blind, placebo-controlled, within-subject experiments, cocaine (0, 125, 250 mg/70 kg; n =12), methamphetamine (0, 20, 40 mg; n =19), and alcohol (0, 1 g/kg alcohol; n =25) were administered and demand was assessed using the Blinded-Dose Purchase Task. Participants answered questions regarding simulated purchasing of the blinded drug dose across increasing prices. Demand metrics, subjective effects, and self-reported real-world monetary spending on drugs were evaluated. Results Data were well modeled by the demand curve function, with significantly higher intensity (purchasing at low prices) for active drug doses compared to placebo for all experiments. Unit-price analyses revealed more persistent consumption across prices (lower α ) in the higher compared to lower active dose condition for methamphetamine (a similar non-significant finding emerged for cocaine). Significant associations between demand metrics, peak subjective effects, and real-world spending on drugs also emerged across all experiments. Conclusions Orderly demand curve data revealed differences across drug and placebo conditions, and relations to real-world measures of drug spending, and subjective effects. Unit-price analyses enabled parsimonious comparisons across doses. Results lend credence to the validity of the Blinded-Dose Purchase Task, which allows for control of drug expectancies.

During the 2011–2017 drought in California, water providers used a variety of demand-side management (DSM) policies to successfully reduce water consumption by over 20%. Unfortunately, because utilities used numerous conservation policies simultaneously, little is known about support for specific policies—specifically, an untested water-budgeting policy wherein utilities gave households an allotment of water and charged higher prices for water used in excess of the budget. California recently legislated mandatory long-term reductions in water usage. It is therefore critical to obtain a better understanding of which policies, including water budgeting, have strongest public support, and to understand how the drought experience changed residents' water use behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, habits, and personal capabilities surrounding conservation. This work surveyed individuals residing in northern California, the “North State,” during a period of severe drought. We used best-worst scaling to determine households’ preferences for DSM policies; asked households how their water use behaviors changed; and evaluated psychological attitudes toward drought and water conservation. Results show the vast majority of households changed their water use behaviors during the drought. Over two-thirds of respondents never exceeded their water budgets and said they would continue to conserve after the state lifted conservation requirements. Respondents preferred water budgets relative to more familiar DSM policies, a result with implications for forecasting future water demand. Last, our survey finds only minor differences in policy preferences for respondents with different demographics and attitudes toward water use, even for variables (e.g., income) that previous literature has found to have disparate welfare effects across users.

Public Health Significance We tested the effects of methamphetamine administration on sexual desire and hypothetical condom-use decisions as measured by the Sexual Delay Discounting Task. Compared to placebo, methamphetamine caused group-level, dose-related increases in sexual desire, with decreased reported likelihood of condom use among individual participants who experienced increased desire and increased likelihood of condom use in those who experienced decreased desire. These mixed results may be consistent with methamphetamine's role as both a treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and as a drug of abuse associated with increased sexual risk taking. Correlational evidence has linked methamphetamine use and HIV sexual risk behavior, but the direct effects of methamphetamine on sexual desire and sexual decision making in humans have not been tested. This study was designed to test the effect of methamphetamine administration on sexual desire and hypothetical condom-use decisions as measured by the Sexual Delay Discounting Task. Recreational stimulant users (n = 19) participated in this within-subject, placebo-controlled study comparing the effects of 0 mg, 20 mg, and 40 mg of oral methamphetamine. Compared to placebo, methamphetamine caused dose-related and time-related increases in a single-item sexual desire rating and some standard stimulant abuse liability ratings, as well as dose-related increases in the Sexual Arousal and Desire Inventory (SADI; a multidimensional scale capturing positive and negative aspects of desire/arousal). However, methamphetamine caused no significant mean differences in likelihood of condom use within the Sexual Delay Discounting Task or the Monetary Discounting Task. SADI scores were negatively correlated with change from placebo in condom use likelihood in the Sexual Delay Discounting Task for some partner conditions (i.e., decreased reported likelihood of condom use in participants who experienced increased desire/arousal and vice versa). These mixed results may be consistent with methamphetamine's role as both a treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and as a drug of abuse associated with increased delay discounting, and they suggest that methamphetamine's effects on discounting may be modulated by the reinforcing properties of what is being discounted. Delay discounting may be an understudied element of risky sexual decision making, particularly among individuals who use methamphetamine.

Hypothetical purchase tasks allow for rapid assessment of behavioral economic demand for numerous commodities and are useful in evaluating reinforcer pathologies, such as substance and behavioral addiction. Currently, there is not a task for evaluating demand for sex without requiring implicit engagement in sex work. The current study used a novel purchase task with hotel rooms for sex as the hypothetical commodity to assess demand for sex in individuals with disordered cocaine use, a population that frequently engages in risky sexual behavior. Adults meeting criteria for cocaine abuse or dependence (13 males, ten females) and noncocaine-using controls (eight males, three females) chose hypothetical sexual partners from a series of photographs and endorsed two partners with whom they would most and least like to have sex. Participants then completed the hotel purchase task for both partners, wherein they reported how many nights at a hotel room, at prices from $10 to $1280 per night, they would purchase in a year. Demand intensity was significantly greater and demand elasticity was significantly lower for the most preferred relative to the less preferred partner. Males demonstrated significantly greater intensity and lesser elasticity for sex than females. Demand metrics did not differ between the cocaine and control group. This task may serve as a useful measure of demand for sex without requiring implicit hypothetical engagement in sex work. Future studies exploring the relation between task performance and other characteristics such as sexual dysfunction, in addition to acute substance administration effects, may further determine the task's clinical utility.

BACKGROUND:There has been growing interest in using oxytocin as a pharmacotherapy for psychiatric disorders, including substance use disorder. Limited data exist regarding oxytocin's reinforcing efficacy, which is a necessary consideration for novel pharmacotherapies, especially in substance-using populations. AIMS:This study aimed to determine the potential reinforcing effects of intranasally administered oxytocin by assessing behavioral economic demand and subjective effects. METHODS:Healthy adults (n = 23) participated in a double-blind, repeated-measures, laboratory study wherein they received intranasal oxytocin (40 IU) or placebo in a randomized order across two sessions. Participants completed drug purchasing tasks at the conclusion of both sessions. Throughout both sessions, subjective and physiological effects were assessed. RESULTS:Demand-curve analysis of purchasing tasks revealed greater median purchasing for oxytocin relative to placebo. Physiological and subjective effects did not significantly differ between oxytocin and placebo. However, a nonsignificant trend was observed for moderately greater drug liking for oxytocin relative to placebo. There was a significant, positive correlation between the difference in drug liking (between oxytocin and placebo) and the difference in lowest-price purchasing (between oxytocin and placebo). CONCLUSIONS:These data suggest the potential for limited reinforcing and abuse-related subjective effects of intranasal oxytocin. Given the small sample, the greater drug liking of oxytocin compared to placebo, and the positive relation between demand and drug liking, it is possible that oxytocin may produce reinforcing effects in some participants. Therefore, additional studies of oxytocin reinforcement are warranted.

Understanding factors associated with cocaine use disorder is important given its public health impact. One factor is delay discounting (devaluation of future consequences). Cocaine users have shown greater delay discounting of money rewards than non-cocaine users. But underexamined are factors known to affect discounting, such as the sign (reward vs. loss), magnitude (e.g., $10 vs. $1,000), and commodity (e.g., money vs. health) of the consequence. Also underexamined is probability discounting (devaluation of uncertain consequences). We conducted a comprehensive group-comparison study of discounting processes by comparing sign, magnitude, and commodity effects between demographically matched cocaine users (n = 23) and never users (n = 24) for delay discounting and sign and magnitude effects for probability discounting. Participants completed delay and probability discounting tasks spanning rewards and losses; money, cocaine, and health outcomes; and magnitudes of $10, $100, and $1,000. Four primary findings emerged when controlling for other drug use. First, cocaine users pervasively discounted delayed consequences more than never users regardless of sign, magnitude, or commodity, with the possible exception of delay discounting of $1,000 health equivalences. Second, both groups discounted delayed rewards more than losses, with a similar trend for probability discounting. Third, magnitude effects in cocaine users for delayed and probabilistic outcomes were similar to those previously observed in never users and other-drug users. Fourth, cocaine users discounted cocaine-related outcomes more than money and health, with variable results comparing money and health. These data suggest that the behavioral processes of delay and probability discounting are qualitatively similar for cocaine users and never users. However, quantitatively, cocaine users generally showed greater delay discounting and similar probability discounting compared with never users.

Cocaine dependence constitutes a significant public health concern. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial tested a novel approach to reducing cocaine use among cocaine-dependent individuals with d-cycloserine, a drug known to enhance learning and some learning-based therapies. Urine samples and cocaine craving were assessed across three phases: induction (Weeks 1-2), treatment (Weeks 3-5; urinalysis-based contingency management plus exposure therapy), and posttreatment (Weeks 6-7). During the treatment phase, either 50 mg of d-cycloserine or placebo was administered after delivery of urinalysis feedback with potential monetary reward and before exposure therapy sessions in naturalistic contexts individually associated with cocaine use. d-cycloserine significantly improved learning on an operant laboratory task. Contingency management significantly reduced cocaine use and craving. d-cycloserine did not significantly affect cocaine use or craving in the treatment phase. Craving significantly increased for the d-cycloserine group during the post treatment phase. Therefore, although the study showed that d-cycloserine was capable of improving learning, enhancement of learning-based therapy was not observed. Moreover, no differences in behavioral measures of cocaine demand (cocaine purchasing task) or monetary or sexual delay discounting were observed across phases or between groups in any phase. These results are somewhat consistent with previous findings suggesting that d-cycloserine administration increases cocaine craving, although they differ from other findings showing that d-cycloserine administration reduces alcohol or nicotine cravings. Methodological variables (e.g., guided vs. unguided exposure therapy sessions, length of extinction exposure) likely play a role in dissimilar findings observed across studies. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Objective: Sexual delay discounting describes the decreased likelihood of condom-protected sex if a condom is not immediately available, which can be quantitatively summarised using the Sexual Delay Discounting Task (SDDT). The present studies determined the extent to which condom use likelihood as assessed by the SDDT is associated with self-reported sexual risk behaviours and demographics in two online samples of adults. Design: Study 1 (n = 767) assessed demographics, sexual risk behaviour, and delay discounting, and examined relations between these variables using correlation and regression. Study 2 (n = 267) examined whether real-world instances of unprotected sex because a condom was not immediately available predicted greater sexual discounting. Main outcome measures: Sexual delay discounting, condom use. Results: Both studies observed significant positive relations between sexual delay discounting and self-reported sexual risk behaviours, and found that males tended to show greater sexual discounting. In Study 2, 46% of the sample self-reported having unprotected sex because a condom was not immediately available, and these individuals showed significantly greater sexual delay discounting. Conclusion: These results extend prior findings by demonstrating that delay is a critical variable underlying real-life sexual risk behaviour among non-clinical samples. The SDDT is an ecologically valid measure of these processes.

Lack of condom use among youth is a major contributor to the spread of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including HIV/AIDS, which has lifelong deleterious health consequences. College students (N=262) completed the Sexual Probability Discounting Task in which participants reported their likelihood of condom use under various probabilities of contracting an STI. Each participant completed the task in regard to different STIs including HIV/AIDS and different partners. Results showed that the likelihood of condom-protected sex generally decreased as HIV/AIDS and other STI contraction became less probable. Moreover, condom-protected sex likelihood was related to STI type (e.g., decreased condom-protected sex in chlamydia relative to HIV/AIDS condition) and partner desirability (decreased condom-protected sex with more desirable partners). Results are the first to show that compared to other STIs, HIV/AIDS had the most influence on condom-protected sex. Results showed probability discounting contributed to lack of condom-protected sex and offers a novel framework for examining determinants of within-subject variability in condom use.

Delay discounting refers to one process by which an individual devalues delayed outcomes. Typical discounting tasks provide no information about events during delays to larger-later rewards. Imposing opportunity costs during the delay increases how steeply delayed rewards are discounted (P. S. Johnson, Herrmann, & Johnson, 2015). The present research evaluated whether distress tolerance (i.e., one’s ability to tolerate distressing emotions and events) is related to discounting rates when opportunity costs are low, high, or unspecified. In a sample of predominantly female college students, we partially replicated that delay discounting was related to distress tolerance when opportunity costs were unspecified (significant relations confined to particular facets of distress tolerance), but distress tolerance was not related to delay discounting when opportunity costs were specified as low or high. The nature of the relation between distress tolerance and discounting when opportunity costs were unspecified was clarified by a significant interaction between alcohol use and distress tolerance; distress tolerance was unrelated to delay discounting except among participants with problematic alcohol use. Further research is needed to characterize relations between alcohol use, distress tolerance, and delay discounting and inform prevention and treatment efforts in at-risk populations.

Although marijuana and tobacco are commonly coused, the nature of their relationship has not been fully elucidated. Behavioral economics has characterized the relationship between concurrently available commodities but has not been applied to marijuana and tobacco couse. U.S. adults ≥18 years who coused marijuana and tobacco cigarettes were recruited via Mechanical Turk, a crowdsourcing service by Amazon. Participants (N = 82) completed online purchasing tasks assessing hypothetical marijuana or tobacco cigarette puff consumption across a range of per-puff prices; 2 single-commodity tasks assessed these when only 1 commodity was available, and 2 cross-commodity tasks assessed these in the presence of a concurrently available fixed-price commodity. Purchasing tasks generated measures of demand elasticity, that is, sensitivity of consumption to prices. In single-commodity tasks, consumption of tobacco cigarette puffs (elasticity of demand: α = 0.0075; 95% confidence interval [0.0066, 0.0085], R² = 0.72) and of marijuana puffs (α = .0044; 95% confidence interval [0.0038, 0.0049], R² = 0.71) declined significantly with increases in price per puff. In cross-commodity tasks when both tobacco cigarette puffs and marijuana puffs were available, demand for 1 commodity was independent of price increases in the other commodity (ps > .05). Results revealed that, in this small sample, marijuana and tobacco cigarettes did not substitute for each other and did not complement each other; instead, they were independent of each other. These preliminary results can inform future studies assessing the economic relationship between tobacco and marijuana in the quickly changing policy climate in the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record

BACKGROUND AND AIMS:Probability discounting refers to the effect of outcome uncertainty on decision making. Using probability discounting, we examined the degree to which self-identified chronic pain patients (CPP) were likely to try a novel analgesic medication given increasing addiction risk. We postulated that propensity for opioid misuse, trait impulsivity and previous opioid experience would be associated positively with likelihood of risky medication use.DESIGN:This cross-sectional on-line study determined state/trait associations with addiction-related medication decisions in CPP.SETTING:US-based CPP participated via Amazon Mechanical Turk; data were collected and analyzed in Baltimore, Maryland.PARTICIPANTS:A total of 263 CPP (70.6% female) participated in the study from 12-13 December 2014.MEASUREMENTS:CPP responded to the Benefit versus Addiction Risk Questionnaire (BARQ) assessing likelihood of taking a hypothetical once-daily oral analgesic medication as a function of two factors: risk of addiction (0-50%) and duration of expected complete pain relief (3, 30 or 365 days). The primary outcome was the BARQ, quantified as area under the curve (AUC). Grouping of CPP at high or low risk for opioid misuse was based on the Screener and Opioid Assessment for Patients with Pain-Revised (SOAPP-R). Predictors included previous experience with opioids, as well as various measures of chronic pain and mental health.FINDINGS:Across hypothetical addiction risk assessed in the BARQ, the likelihood of taking a novel analgesic medication was elevated significantly in patients with high (≥18; n = 137) versus low (<18; n = 126) SOAPP-R scores [P < 0.001; 3-day: Cohen's d = 0.66, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.63, 0.69; 30-day: d = 0.74, 95% CI = 0.71, 0.78; 365-day: d = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.72, 0.79].CONCLUSIONS:In the United States, self-identified chronic pain patients (CPP) at higher risk for opioid misuse were more likely to report willingness to try a novel analgesic despite increasing addiction risk than CPP with low risk of opioid misuse.

Data suggest psychedelics such as psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may hold therapeutic potential in the treatment of addictions, including tobacco dependence. This retrospective cross-sectional anonymous online survey characterized 358 individuals (52 females) who reported having quit or reduced smoking after ingesting a psychedelic in a non-laboratory setting ⩾1 year ago. On average, participants smoked 14 cigarettes/day for 8 years, and had five previous quit attempts before their psychedelic experience. Of the 358 participants, 38% reported continuous smoking cessation after psychedelic use (quitters). Among quitters, 74% reported >2 years’ abstinence. Of the 358 participants, 28% reported a persisting reduction in smoking (reducers), from a mode of 300 cigarettes/month before, to a mode of 1 cigarette/month after the experience. Among reducers, 62% reported >2 years of reduced smoking. Finally, 34% of the 358 participants (relapsers) reported a temporary smoking reduction before returning to baseline smoking levels, with a mode time range to relapse of 3–6 months. Relapsers rated their psychedelic experience significantly lower in personal meaning and spiritual significance than both other groups. Participants across all groups reported less severe affective withdrawal symptoms (e.g. depression, craving) after psychedelic use compared with previous quit attempts, suggesting a potential mechanism of action for psychedelic-associated smoking cessation/reduction. Changes in life priorities/values were endorsed as the most important psychological factor associated with smoking cessation/reduction. Results suggest psychedelics may hold promise in treating tobacco addiction as potentially mediated by spiritual experience, changed priorities/values, and improved emotional regulation.

Although cocaine use has been linked to sexual HIV risk behavior for decades, the direct effects of cocaine on sexual desire and sexual decision-making are unexamined. Research suggests delay discounting (devaluation of future outcomes) and probability discounting (devaluation of uncertain outcomes) play roles in condom use decisions. This study examined the effect of cocaine administration on sexual desire, hypothetical condom use, and discounting tasks. This double-blind, within-subjects study compared the effects of 0, 125, and 250 mg/70 kg oral cocaine HCl in 12 cocaine users. Measures included sexual desire and other subjective ratings, the Sexual Delay Discounting Task, the Sexual Probability Discounting Task, and monetary delay and probability discounting tasks. Cocaine caused dose-related increases in sexual desire and prototypical stimulant abuse-liability ratings. Relative to placebo, cocaine did not significantly alter condom use likelihood when condoms were immediately available or when sex was associated with 100% certainty of sexually transmitted infection (STI). In contrast, cocaine dose-dependently strengthened the effect of delay (sexual delay discounting) and STI uncertainty (sexual probability discounting) in decreasing condom use likelihood. Cocaine caused no significant change in monetary delay and probability discounting. This is the first study showing that cocaine administration increases sexual desire. Detrimental effects of cocaine on sexual risk were only observed when safer sex required delay, or STI risk was uncertain (representative of many real-world scenarios), suggesting a critical role of discounting processes. Lack of monetary effects highlights the importance of studying clinically relevant outcomes when examining drug effects on behavioral processes.

The public health impact of e-cigarettes may depend on their substitutability for tobacco cigarettes. Dual users of e-cigarettes and tobacco cigarettes completed purchasing tasks in which they specified daily use levels under hypothetical conditions that varied the availability and price of e-cigarettes, tobacco cigarettes, and nicotine gum (for those with nicotine gum experience). When either e-cigarettes or tobacco cigarettes were the only available commodity, as price per puff increased, purchasing decreased, revealing similar reinforcement profiles. When available concurrently, as the price of tobacco puffs increased, purchasing of tobacco puffs decreased while purchasing of fixed-price e-cigarette puffs increased. Among those with nicotine gum experience, when the price of tobacco puffs was closest to the actual market value of tobacco puffs, e-cigarette availability decreased median tobacco puff purchases by 44% compared to when tobacco was available alone. In contrast, nicotine gum availability caused no decrease in tobacco puff purchases. E-cigarettes may serve as a behavioral economic substitute for tobacco cigarettes, and may be a superior substitute compared to nicotine gum in their ability to decrease tobacco use. Although important questions remain regarding the health impacts of e-cigarettes, these data are consistent with the possibility that e-cigarettes may serve as smoking cessation/reduction aids.

INTRODUCTION:Use of amphetamine-type stimulants (e.g., methamphetamine) is associated with acute sleep disruptions. No prior reports have characterized the acute effects of methamphetamine on sleep using polysomnography, the gold standard for objective sleep monitoring.METHODS:Recreational stimulant users (n=19) completed a baseline assessment, which included questionnaires assessing demographic and substance use characteristics, and the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), which assesses sleep quality over the past month. Participants were administered 0mg (placebo), 20mg, or 40mg oral methamphetamine at 08:15h on study days, using a double-blind, randomized, within-subjects design. Sleep was monitored using polysomnography from 22:20 that evening until 06:15 the following morning.RESULTS:PSQI scores indicated more than half of participants reported poor sleep quality at baseline. Methamphetamine dose-dependently increased sleep latency, and decreased total sleep time, sleep efficiency, time in NREM 2 sleep, number of REM periods, and total time in REM sleep. Sleep under placebo conditions was consistent with what would be expected from healthy adults.CONCLUSIONS:Morning oral administration of methamphetamine produces robust disruptions in nighttime sleep. Future research should examine relations between stimulant use and sleep disruption in naturalistic settings, with regard to both stimulant abuse and licit prescription use.

BACKGROUND:Alcohol use, especially at binge levels, is associated with sexual HIV risk behavior, but the mechanisms through which alcohol increases sexual risk taking are not well-examined. Delay discounting, that is, devaluation of future consequences as a function of delay to their occurrence, has been implicated in a variety of problem behaviors, including risky sexual behavior. Probability discounting is studied with a similar framework as delay discounting, but is a distinct process in which a consequence is devalued because it is uncertain or probabilistic.METHODS:Twenty-three, nondependent alcohol users (13 male, 10 female; mean age = 25.3 years old) orally consumed alcohol (1 g/kg) or placebo in 2 separate experimental sessions. During sessions, participants completed tasks examining delay and probability discounting of hypothetical condom-protected sex (Sexual Delay Discounting Task, Sexual Probability Discounting Task) and of hypothetical and real money.RESULTS:Alcohol decreased the likelihood that participants would wait to have condom-protected sex versus having immediate, unprotected sex. Alcohol also decreased the likelihood that participants would use an immediately available condom given a specified level of sexually transmitted infection (STI) risk. Alcohol did not affect delay discounting of money, but it did increase participants' preferences for larger, probabilistic monetary rewards over smaller, certain rewards.CONCLUSIONS:Acute, binge-level alcohol intoxication may increase sexual HIV risk by decreasing willingness to delay sex in order to acquire a condom in situations where one is not immediately available, and by decreasing sensitivity to perceived risk of STI contraction. These findings suggest that delay and probability discounting are critical, but heretofore unrecognized, processes that may mediate the relations between alcohol use and HIV risk.