The Drosophila Fused (Fu) kinase is an integral component of the Hedgehog (Hh) pathway that helps promote Hh-dependent gene transcription. Vertebrate homologues of Fu function in the Hh pathway in vitro, suggesting that Fu is evolutionarily conserved. We have generated fused (stk36) knockout mice to address the in vivo function of the mouse Fu (mFu) homologue. fused knockouts develop normally, being born in Mendelian ratios, but fail to thrive within 2 weeks, displaying profound growth retardation with communicating hydrocephalus and early mortality. The fused gene is expressed highly in ependymal cells and the choroid plexus, tissues involved in the production and circulation of cerebral spinal fluid (CSF), suggesting that loss of mFu disrupts CSF homeostasis. Similarly, fused is highly expressed in the nasal epithelium, where fused knockouts display bilateral suppurative rhinitis. No obvious defects were observed in the development of organs where Hh signaling is required (limbs, face, bones, etc.). Specification of neuronal cell fates by Hh in the neural tube was normal in fused knockouts, and induction of Hh target genes in numerous tissues is not affected by the loss of mFu. Furthermore, stimulation of fused knockout cerebellar granule cells to proliferate with Sonic Hh revealed no defect in Hh signal transmission. These results show that the mFu homologue is not required for Hh signaling during embryonic development but is required for proper postnatal development, possibly by regulating the CSF homeostasis or ciliary function.

Despite significant efforts in recent years to increase diversity in science and academia, African Americans, Hispanics, and American Indian/Alaskan Natives remain severely underrepresented in these fields. To date, institutional social climate has received little attention as a target to improve the representation of these minority groups. In this article, we suggest that improvement in the social climate in both individual laboratories and larger institutions may lead to better recruitment and retention of minorities in science and academia. After documenting the magnitude of the underrepresentation problem, we offer a framework for a better understanding of climate, illustrate how members of majority and minority groups may perceive climate differently, and provide specific recommendations for improving the climate. The benefits of a diverse workforce in the sciences include a commitment to social justice, a broad diversity of perspectives leading to greater opportunities for scientific advancement, and a potentially enhanced focus on understanding and eliminating the health disparities among different racial and ethnic groups.

knox genes encode homeodomain-containing transcription factors that are required for meristem maintenance and proper patterning of organ initiation. In plants with simple leaves, knox genes are expressed exclusively in the meristem and stem, but in dissected leaves, they are also expressed in leaf primordia, suggesting that they may play a role in the diversity of leaf form. This hypothesis is supported by the intriguing phenotypes found in gain-of-function mutations where knox gene misexpression affects leaf and petal shape. Similar phenotypes are also found in recessive mutations of genes that function to negatively regulate knox genes. KNOX proteins function as heterodimers with other homeodomains in the TALE superclass. The gibberellin and lignin biosynthetic pathways are known to be negatively regulated by KNOX proteins, which results in indeterminate cell fates.

The National Undergraduate Neuroanatomy Competition: Lessons Learned from Partnering with Students to Innovate Undergraduate Neuroanatomy Education

A qualitative and quantitative histological analysis of minor salivary glands was carried out in 60 alcoholics (20 alcoholics with liver damage, 20 without liver damage, 20 young alcoholics) and 20 matched control patients. A sialographic study was carried out in the same 60 alcoholic patients and in 40 non-alcoholic control individuals. Minor salivary gland biopsies were obtained and samples were processed for light microscopy. A quantitative morphometrical assessment was carried out by counting the number of acinar cells with a squared grid eye-piece. Both experimental and control samples presented very similar results demonstrating that, at least in this study, minor salivary glands do not develop hypertrophic, atrophic or hyperplastic changes. We detected a statistical difference between adult alcoholics without liver damage and adult alcoholics with liver damage. A diffuse mononuclear inflammatory cell infiltrate was distributed through the stroma or concentrated around the salivary ducts in both experimental and control samples. Acinar degeneration and hyperaemia were common changes observed in both experimental and control samples. Sialographic images from alcoholics demonstrated a similar morphology when compared with control patients, perhaps a reduction in secondary ducts diameter was observed in alcoholic patients. From this study we may conclude that minor salivary glands are scarcely affected by alcoholism, even when this disease has progressed to liver damage.

The results of several studies pertaining to 6-OHDA lesions of the nigrostriatal dopamine system and the resulting rotational behavior are analyzed using meta-analysis. The studies are then combined to produce rea- sonable data for a web-based simulation which mimics the resulting rotational behavior found in the wet-lab experiment. Introduction: In this paper we describe the experiment to be modelled, summarize results found in the existing, published literature, describe the analysis used to combine the results from several experiments, show the computations involved, and explain the data used in the web-based simulation.