With excellent solubilization capacity and aquifer suitability, GEO3S-12, a novel anionic-nonionic gemini surfactant, holds great promise in surfactant-enhanced aquifer remediation technology (SEAR) for tetrachloroethylene (PCE) removal from aquifers. However, PCE removal modes, environmental factors, and engineering control parameters affect the removal effect of residual PCE from aquifers. In this work, the main removal mode of residual PCE from the simulated aquifer by GEO3S-12 was characterized using the microscopic model and the macroscopic simulation column of laboratory-scale aquifer cell. The influences of environmental factors and engineering control parameters on residual PCE removal effect were investigated through one-dimensional simulation column. The solubilization remediation effect of the PCE-contaminated simulated aquifer by GEO3S-12 was evaluated in a two-dimensional simulation tank. The results indicated that the solubilization was the dominant mechanism of residual PCE removal by GEO3S-12 when the residual PCE was partially distributed in the aquifer. The environmental factors including particle size of the simulated aquifer, contact time between GEO3S-12 and PCE-NAPL, and saturation of residual PCE jointly control the removal effect of PCE. And a quadratic function model of environmental factors was constructed to predict the PCE removal effect. The optimal PCE solubilization removal effect could be achieved by using the GEO3S-12 injection concentration that was 40 g/L first and then 20 g/L, low injection velocity (1.9 m/d), and intermittent injection mode. The solubilization effect of GEO3S-12 increased the aqueous-phase PCE concentration at the lower right corner of the simulated aquifer that away from the source from 10 mg/L to 10000 mg/L. The percentage of PCE removal amount from the simulated aquifer by GEO3S-12 was 97.11%. The findings provide guidance for how to adjust engineering parameters of SEAR based on the aquifer environmental factors to achieve the best PCE-contaminated site remediation effect.

Metal carbides, as one kinds of promising catalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), show great potential for practical applications. To furtherly improve the catalytic performance for ORR, the composition and structure of metal carbides can be modulated by elemental doping. In this paper, Ni element is adopted to substitute partial Fe to enhance the catalytic performance for ORR of Fe3(B,C). The composition of the carbide is designed as Ni and iron based B-doped carbides ((Fe3-XNiX)(B,C)), where X is set as 1.8, 1.5 and 1.2, respectively. The preparation procedure of the catalysts was firstly investigated. The obtained results confirmed that 140 ℃ hydrothermal treatment following with 700 ℃ calcination under nitrogen atmosphere was the best synthesis procedure. The structure of the prepared (Fe3-XNiX)(B,C) series catalysts was investigated by HRTEM, XPS, XRD and SEM tests. Results showed that the catalysts still kept the orthorhombic structure of Fe3C based carbide despite the crystal cell parameters had slight changes with the substitution of Ni for Fe. XPS showed that the electronic states of Ni, Fe, C and B changed slightly with the changes of Ni content in the carbides. The electrocatalytic performances of (Fe3-XNiX)(B,C) for ORR were examined by CV, LSV, Tafel, i-t, RDE and RRDE tests. Results showed that the catalytic performance of the catalysts changed with the Ni content. In all the catalysts, (Fe1.5Ni1.5)(B,C) displayed the highest catalytic performance for ORR. RDE and RRDE test results showed that (Fe1.5Ni1.5)(B,C) catalyzed ORR was major happened through 4-electron pathway. Density functional theory calculations confirmed that the electrons that transferred from Ni to other elements modulated the electron state of Fe, C and B, which enhanced the electrocatalytic activity of the catalysts for ORR. The results of the paper revealed that the catalytic performance of metal carbides for ORR could be improved by the electronic state modulation through hetero-atom doping. The B-doped iron-nickel bimetallic carbides especially (Fe1.5Ni1.5)(B,C) show great promise to be alternate for Pt-group based catalysts for ORR.

The removal of contaminants by peroxydisulfate (PDS)/Fe2+ system is a promising groundwater decontamination technology, while the non-recyclability of Fe2+ and the restricted mass transfer of contaminants in water limit the decontamination efficiency.Here, we developed carboxymethyl-β-cyclodextrin (CM-β-CD) to chelate Fe2+ coupled with enhancing the solubization of contaminants in groundwater for efficient decontamination. Results showed that a 4.60-fold enhancement in the perchloroethylene (PCE) degradation rate following the addition of 1 g/L CM-β-CD to the PDS/Fe2+ system. The ternary complex formed by CM-β-CD, Fe2+ and PCE was confirmed via ultraviolet absorption spectra and nuclear magnetic resonance hydrogen spectrum. Electron paramagnetic resonance, complemented by chemical probe and radical quenching experiments, identified singlet oxygen (1O2), high-valent iron (Fe(IV)), and hydroxyl radicals (•OH) as the dominant reactive species in the PDS/Fe2+/CM-β-CD system, with relative contributions to PCE degradation quantified at 30.4%, 26.2%, and 18.1%, respectively. The presence of humic acid and common inorganic ions showed negligible effects on PCE degradation efficiency. The primary PCE degradation intermediate is dichloromethane, mediated by 1O2, Fe(IV), and •OH, with mineralization occurring via dechlorination pathways. This study developed an environmentally sustainable remediation strategy utilizing CM-β-CD as a dual-functional agent for simultaneous Fe2+ chelation and contaminant solubilization, enabling efficient groundwater decontamination.

In this study, rapeseed straw and dewatered sludge were used as raw materials and ZnCl₂ as an activator to prepare a straw-sludge based composite activated carbon via a mixed co-carbonization method. Single-factor and orthogonal experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of carbonization temperature, solid-liquid ratio, activation time, raw material ratio, and activator concentration on the iodine adsorption value of the composite activated carbon, aiming to optimize the preparation process. The results showed that the optimal preparation conditions for the composite activated carbon were: raw material ratio (sludge:straw) of 1:3, solid-liquid ratio of 1:3, activation time of 60 min, ZnCl₂ concentration of 3.5 mol/L, and carbonization temperature of 500 ℃. The composite activated carbon prepared under the optimal conditions was then utilized to adsorb PO₄³⁻ in water, and the effects of initial wastewater concentration, activated carbon dosage, and wastewater pH on the adsorption performance were investigated. The results demonstrated that under the conditions of an initial wastewater concentration of 40 mg/L, an activated carbon dosage of 40 g/L, and a pH of 7, the removal rate of PO₄³⁻ exceeded 93%, with an adsorption capacity of 1.17 mg/g.

The treatment of shale gas wastewater presented significant challenges as an industrial wastewater, due to its complex composition, high salt content and low biodegradability. In this study, the alkaline activated persulfate (NaOH/PMS) advanced oxidation method was used in the treatment of shale gas wastewater. The effect of the reaction parameter and the action mechanism were investigated. The results showed that when the dosage of persulfate was 7 g/L, the initial pH value was 12, and the reaction temperature was 90 ℃, the chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal rate reached more than 80%. When coupled with ultraviolet (UV) light, the removal rate of COD reached as high as 90%. It was determined through electron paramagnetic technology and quenching experiment that there existed two kinds of free radicals, SO4-· and OH·, in the reaction process, while SO4-· plays a major role. The mechanism of COD removal by the advanced oxidation method mainly attributed to the oxidative degradation of organics by SO4-· and OH·. The formation of free radicals in the system could be promoted when coupled with UV light, and then the treatment efficiency enhanced. The research provided a more simple and effective technology for the treatment of shale gas fracturing flowback wastewater.

Operating enterprises have complex, concealed engineering facilities, and in the event of leakage incidents, pollutants are released, accumulate, and migrate in groundwater. Groundwater contamination source identification (GCSI) is difficult due to the insufficient number of monitoring wells. Conventional indirect numerical inversion methods, such as simulation-optimization (SO), simulation-stochastic statistics (SSS), and simulation-filtering (SF), suffer from reduced accuracy due to the sparsity and high nonlinearity of monitoring data. This work established a novel deep learning-based direct inversion method, the Physics-informed Spatiotemporal Transformer (Pi-STT), which effectively integrates spatiotemporal information from monitoring data and embeds physical constraints into the loss function. To evaluate the efficiency and accuracy of Pi-STT, three indirect numerical inversion methods, integrating the ResNets surrogate model with the Goat Optimization Algorithm (GOA), Differential Evolution Adaptive Metropolis (DREAM), and Ensemble Kalman Filter (EnKF) algorithms, were developed based on the SO, SSS, and SF frameworks. Results indicate that Pi-STT achieved the lowest mean relative errors and the shortest computational times for both the hypothetical case and the real operating enterprise. Noise sensitivity and sparsity analyses performed separately for the steady-flow and transient-flow hypothetical cases demonstrate that Pi-STT maintains excellent robustness, with relative errors remaining below 10% even under increased noise levels and shortened temporal observation periods. Pi-STT incorporates the critical elements for GCSI in sparse and discontinuous data scenarios, namely physical constraints and spatiotemporal information. This approach holds significant importance for efficiently and accurately identifying groundwater contamination sources in operating enterprises, demonstrating strong potential for practical application.

Pollution early warning (PEW) of soil and groundwater by heavy metals is critical for preventing irreversible damage to ecosystems and human health. This review provides a novel, data-driven synthesis of the field by uniquely combining a quantitative bibliometric analysis of over 1400 publications with a systematic technological evaluation. Our analysis reveals a substantial growth trend and identifies a clear three-stage technological evolution: from reliance on single-indicator assessment (1999–2015), to the rise of model-based prediction (2016–2019), and the current era of big data-driven intelligence (2020–present). We critically assess four major PEW categories and find that traditional monitoring and biological methods are constrained by poor selectivity, environmental susceptibility, and instability. In contrast, this review highlights that AI-driven models and multi-source data fusion are pivotal advancements, significantly enhancing predictive accuracy and timeliness. The primary challenge ahead is bridging the gap between sophisticated models and robust, real-time data acquisition. We conclude that future breakthroughs will depend on advancing sensor technology and multi-scale coupled models, fundamentally shifting the paradigm from reactive remediation to proactive prevention.

Engineered copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO NPs), highly cytotoxic and increasingly detected in groundwater, can influence the transport of traditional organic contaminants such as perchloroethylene (PCE), yet their interaction and co-transport mechanisms remain unclear. This study investigated CuO NPs transport and their effects on PCE migration in porous media through batch and column experiments. PCE adsorption onto CuO NPs followed pseudo-second-order kinetics and the Freundlich isotherm, controlling by surface binding, intraparticle diffusion, and pore-filling mechanisms. CuO NPs mobility decreased with increasing concentration (10-50 mg/L), while smaller grain sizes (0.1-0.25 mm) and slower flow rates enhanced retention via mass transfer and particle deposition. At 5 mM ionic strength, CuO NPs mobility was strongly suppressed; however, within 10-15 mM, partial recovery of mobility occurred as the surface charge approached zero, weakening NP-media attraction. Diffusion dominated CuO NPs transport over interception or sedimentation. CuO NPs exhibited phase-dependent effects on PCE transport: dissolved-phase PCE showed reduced breakthrough due to adsorption onto CuO NPs, while free- and residual-phase PCE mobility increased as CuO NPs decreased water-rock interfacial wettability, promoting droplet remobilization. These results enhance understanding of CuO NPs-organic contaminant co-transport and provide critical insights for environmental risk assessment of nanoparticle-contaminant systems.

The uneven distribution of colloidal Mg(OH)2 in heterogeneous porous media poses a significant challenge for its effective application in groundwater remediation. To address this issue, this study introduces a novel approach using xanthan gum (XG) as a viscosity modifier to enhance the migration of colloidal Mg(OH)2 into low permeability zone. Results indicate that XG is highly compatible with colloidal Mg(OH)2, viscosity modified colloidal Mg(OH)2 (VMC-Mg(OH)2) exhibits significant shear thinning properties. The increased viscosity effectively reduces the deposition of colloidal Mg(OH)2 and facilitates its return to groundwater. With the addition of XG to the system, the collision efficiency (eta) between colloidal Mg(OH)2 and porous media decreased from 0.00865 to 0.00142, while the attachment efficiency (alpha) was reduced from 0.4858 to 0.1038. These variations notably enhance the migration performance of colloidal Mg(OH)2, with C/C0 increasing from 0.12 to 0.94. The incorporation of XG also leads to a substantial increase in colloidal Mg(OH)2 sweep efficiency in low permeability zone, rising from 53.6 % to 92.5 % as the XG concentration increased from 0 mg/L to 200 mg/L. Moreover, the simulation of collision efficiency (eta) and attachment efficiency (alpha) accurately predicts the migration of VMC-Mg(OH)2 in heterogeneous porous media, with a maximum error of 5.39 %. These findings highlight the significant potential of VMC-Mg(OH)2 as a reactive reagent for remediating contamination in low permeability zone.

The high dissociation energy of C-F bonds and the energy-limited low-temperature groundwater environment jointly render PFOA defluorination kinetically inaccessible, while sluggish regeneration of metal active centers constrains catalytic turnover in advanced oxidation systems. Here, we report a biomimetic molecular trap, hexadecafluorinated cobalt phthalocyanine (F16CoPc), inversely designed from the pollutant template, that enables PFOA defluorination at environmentally relevant temperatures by constructing a preorganized reaction interface and triggering a substrate-driven intrinsic regeneration cycle. The electron-deficient perfluorinated pi-plane of F16CoPc recognizes PFOA mainly through anion-pi interactions, assisted by fluorine-fluorine interactions, thereby forming a preorganized interfacial configuration. This configuration lowers the activation enthalpy and confines reactive species to surface-bound radical states, preventing nonproductive diffusion and loss into the bulk phase. Crucially, degradation-derived perfluoroalkyl radicals (C n F2n+1 center dot) remain in molecular-scale proximity to Co centers, where they reduce Co3+ generated during PMS activation back to active Co2+ via short-range electron transfer, regenerating catalytic turnover. By inheriting key structural recognition motifs, partially defluorinated intermediates further maintain an iterative recognition-degradation-regeneration cycle. F16CoPc achieved >80% defluorination at 30 degrees C and >30% at 10 degrees C, highlighting the potential of molecular template engineering as a biomimetic strategy for groundwater remediation and for overcoming C-F activation and metal-center deactivation.

Biomimetic environmental materials, which draw on the hierarchical architectures and interfacial chemistry of biological systems, have demonstrated effective strategies for addressing the limitations of conventional water treatment in complex multicomponent matrices. This review provides a systematic and critical overview of biomimetic materials for water decontamination, organized around a structure-property-application framework. The strategies are categorized and discussed based on their biological prototypes and design principles, and introduced in terms of structural configurations, mechanistic basis, and performance characteristics. Adsorption approaches covering nanoconfined coordination chemistry, contact-splitting-inspired physical capture, and molecularly imprinted recognition are examined, followed by separation strategies drawing on surface wettability regulation, interfacial hydration engineering, and sub-nanometer channel sieving. Moreover, biomimetic catalytic strategies including single-atom enzymatic mimicry and Z-scheme charge transfer architectures, as well as multifunctional integrated systems coupling adsorption, membrane filtration, and intelligent monitoring-remediation, are explored. Particular attention is given to material durability, regeneration behavior, and perspectives on machine learning-guided design and autonomous adaptive systems. However, most strategies reviewed herein remain at early stages of technological readiness and face unresolved challenges in long-term stability and scalable fabrication. In summary, biomimetic environmental materials present promising design principles for water treatment, but substantial efforts are still required before practical application can be realized.

The high dissociation energy of C-F bonds and the energy-limited low-temperature groundwater environment jointly render PFOA defluorination kinetically inaccessible, while sluggish regeneration of metal active centers constrains catalytic turnover in advanced oxidation systems. Here, we report a biomimetic molecular trap, hexadecafluorinated cobalt phthalocyanine (F16CoPc), inversely designed from the pollutant template, that enables PFOA defluorination at environmentally relevant temperatures by constructing a preorganized reaction interface and triggering a substrate-driven intrinsic regeneration cycle. The electron-deficient perfluorinated π-plane of F16CoPc recognizes PFOA mainly through anion-π interactions, assisted by fluorine-fluorine interactions, thereby forming a preorganized interfacial configuration. This configuration lowers the activation enthalpy and confines reactive species to surface-bound radical states, preventing nonproductive diffusion and loss into the bulk phase. Crucially, degradation-derived perfluoroalkyl radicals (CnF2n+1•) remain in molecular-scale proximity to Co centers, where they reduce Co3+ generated during PMS activation back to active Co2+ via short-range electron transfer, regenerating catalytic turnover. By inheriting key structural recognition motifs, partially defluorinated intermediates further maintain an iterative recognition-degradation-regeneration cycle. F16CoPc achieved >80% defluorination at 30 °C and >30% at 10 °C, highlighting the potential of molecular template engineering as a biomimetic strategy for groundwater remediation and for overcoming C-F activation and metal-center deactivation.

Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is highly resistant to degradation due to the extremely high bond energy of its C-F bonds. Current remediation approaches lead to incomplete defluorination and generally rely on external energy input, which limits their applicability for groundwater remediation. Here, we develop a novel emulsified vegetable oil (EVO)-Fe(II)/O2 system that achieves near-complete defluorination of PFOA (>99%) under dark conditions without external oxidants. Mechanistic investigations reveal that EVO droplets create droplet-associated interfaces that confine PFOA and reactive species and catalyze a distinct radical cascade, modulating the conversion of superoxide radicals (O2•-) into singlet oxygen (1O2) and subsequently carbon-centered radicals (CCR•). This sequence unlocks a novel defluorination pathway dominated by CCR• and 1O2. Furthermore, this reactivity is sustained by the structural evolution of EVO from linear degradation to cross-linked aromatic polymerization, which continuously replenishes redox-active functional groups. These findings establish a theoretical framework for low-energy, sustainable PFOA deep defluorination in groundwater.

In recent years, CO₂ emission has been a global consensus that it is urgent to reduce CO₂ emissions and realize CO₂ resource utilization. However, current technologies for CO₂ reduction have the problems of high energy input, high operational costs, and a risk of secondary pollution. Microbial electrosynthesis (MES) combines the metabolic activities of microorganisms on electrodes with electrical energy to convert CO₂ into organics. Although MES has the advantages of mild reaction conditions, low operational cost, and potential for high-value-added products, it still confronts obstacles like low electron transfer efficiency, low conversion rate, improper reactor design and operation, etc. Therefore, this paper provided a comprehensive review of MES with CO2 conversion, aiming to identify the determinants of the process and exploit its future research directions. There are three tasks in this review: Firstly, typical fatty acid and alcohol production (3.5 to 5700 mg L−1 d−1) from MES and their metabolic pathways were introduced elaborately. Secondly, the determining factors of MES, such as reactor configuration, electrode material, cathodic potential (generally −0.8 to −1.2 V vs. Ag/AgCl), and coulombic efficiency (17.6 % to 113.6 %), were comprehensively discussed. Finally, challenges of microbial electrochemical reduction of CO₂ were discussed, and future research directions were proposed.

As an abundant natural mineral, pyrite presents a highly promising solution for sustainable groundwater remediation, owing to its distinct electron transfer properties. However, research on pyrite's remediation capabilities has often focused on isolated mechanisms, neglecting the complex interplay between the mineral's properties, the environmental matrix, and interfacial processes, thereby limiting comprehensive understanding of its efficacy and constraints. Herein, an integrated "mechanism-application-sustainability" framework is proposed to bridge this knowledge gap. It systematically elucidates pyrite's multi-scale remediation mechanisms and its diverse applications for preventing and remediating groundwater pollution. A core component of this framework is the integration of a life-cycle assessment perspective to prospectively identify the sustainability and environmental safety challenges of long-term pyrite applications and to outline promising research directions. Ultimately, this review aims to provide a fundamental understanding and strategic guidance for the rational design and sustainable deployment of pyrite-based remediation technologies, with the goal of accelerating their translation from laboratory research to engineering applications.

Groundwater pollution is an important problem threatening the ecological environment and people's health, so it's very necessary to remedy the polluted groundwater. For the past few years, bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) have been widely used to remedy various polluted environments such as gas, water and solid. This is mainly attributed to following characteristics of BESs: (ⅰ) electrode can act as measureless electron acceptor/donor; (ⅱ) electrode surface can support the growth of microorganisms; (ⅲ) the electric field can stimulate naturally occurring microbial degradation activity; and (ⅳ) little or even no energy consumption. These properties enable BESs to degrade pollutants in an environmentally sustainable manner and improve the possibility of complete removal of pollutants. Therefore, this makes a lot of researchers choose to apply BESs to remediate polluted groundwater in situ. In order to fully understand BESs, this paper summarized from different aspects. Primarily, the remediation mechanism and main forms of BESs were described. Then, the application and research progress of BESs for the single and mixed pollutants removal in groundwater were reviewed. The principal variables affecting degradation performance were presented, including electrode potential, initial pollutant concentration, pH, carbon source and other process parameters and environmental conditions. Further, strategies to enhance the remediation performance of BESs were also discussed from the aspects of optimizing the system configuration, inoculating pre-enhanced microorganisms, adding redox medium and surfactant. Finally, the potential research direction of removing groundwater pollutants by BESs was proposed.

Structural differences among non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPLs) result in varying oxidation rates, limiting mass transfer between NAPLs and oxidants and seriously impairing the effectiveness of remediation via traditional in-situ chemical oxidation. To tackle this challenge, a novel approach is proposed for remediating multi-NAPL-polluted groundwater that leverages phase transfer catalysis (PTC) to enhance heterogeneous mass transfer by transferring oxidants from groundwater to NAPLs. Meanwhile, "oxidation-in-situ activation" is achieved through bifunctional oxidation using permanganate and peroxymonosulfate (PP). The proposed approach is referred to PTC-PP in this study. Herein, trichloroethene (TCE) and benzene serve as a representative multi-NAPL system. Experimental results indicated that PP significantly improved degradation efficiency of benzene in multi-NAPL system by at least 60.8 % compared to single-oxidant systems, and further enhancement (17.6 %) was achieved when PP was combined with PTC compared to PP alone. Dissolved Mn(II) and MnO2 generated by MnO4- reduction effectively activated peroxymonosulfate in PTC-PP system, with colloidal MnO2 being the most effective activator. Consequently, SO4 center dot-, O-2(center dot-) and O-1(2) were formed in both NAPL and aqueous phases, while (OH)-O-center dot was formed in aqueous phase, playing a crucial role in benzene oxidation. In phase transfer process of PTC-PP, the proportion of MnO4- transferred to benzene exceeded that to TCE. This finding illustrated that nondirectional phase transfer of oxidants posed a challenge for simultaneous promotion of TCE and benzene degradation. However, TCE and benzene removal efficiencies were both >75.7 % by applying peroxymonosulfate after KMnO4 addition. These findings lay the theoretical groundwork for PTC-PP application in groundwater remediation.

Enhanced in-situ biogeochemical transformation (ISBGT) has been proven effective in promoting the abiotic beta-elimination of chlorinated solvents. However, the mechanisms underlying reaction zone evolution, remediation efficiency, and long-term permeability changes during the remediation process remain poorly understood. This study employed emulsified vegetable oil (EVO) and FeSO4 as amendments to establish an in-situ reaction zone in a simulated column system. The reaction zone evolution was systematically analyzed, and the remediation efficiency and permeability variations in a PCE-contaminated aquifer were assessed. The results showed that after a single injection of EVO-FeSO4, the reaction zone evolved through three distinct stages, including emulsified oil decomposition, microbial reduction, and beta-elimination. The formation and aging mechanisms of the sulfur-iron mineral biogeobattery were also clarified. During the 300-day experimental period, the system achieved a PCE removal efficiency of 93.3%, with abiotic degradation processes contributing 96.36% of the total removal. This study provides important insights for the further development and practical application of ISBGT technology.

Contamination of the subsurface environment poses a serious hazard to the environment and human health. Recently, the bioelectrochemical system (BES) has drawn great attention in soil and groundwater remediation as it does not necessitate the addition of chemicals and exhibits minimal energy consumption to facilitate microbial degradation of pollutants. However, the complexity of the subsurface environment and the design parameters of the BES significantly affect the remediation performance and the current literature on BES primarily concentrates on its application in wastewater treatment, with a lack of summary of that in the subsurface environment. Therefore, the purpose of this review was to provide the current status, challenges, and outlooks of BES in situ treatment of pollutants from soil and groundwater. Firstly, the principles and efficacies of BES in treating the typical pollutants from the subsurface environment were discussed. Secondly, the factors that impact the BES treatment efficiencies, especially soil properties, the distinctive and pivotal factors for BES in situ application, were discussed specifically. Finally, the challenges and outlooks of BES for the in situ remediation of the contaminated soil and groundwater were addressed. BES is a green and sustainable in situ remediation technology and future advancements may necessitate the integration with complementary technologies and innovative system configurations to advance the practical implementation of BES.

The biogeobattery describes the redox and electron transfer processes between natural reactive minerals and organic matter, playing a crucial role in the biogeochemical cycling of elements like carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) underground. This process is driven by environmental microbial communities, with active minerals and organic matter acting as electron donors and acceptors. Current studies mainly focus on the material transformations and electron transfer between minerals and organic matter, but there is a lack of systematic review on the components and applications of biogeobatteries. This paper reviews the key minerals and microorganisms that constitute iron-based biogeobatteries, explores their formation mechanisms and electron transfer pathways, and summarizes their environmental applications in carbon storage, bioleaching, soil fertility enhancement, and heavy metal remediation. Finally, future research directions are proposed to improve efficiency and make the biogeobatteries become more practical.