Fusarium head blight (FHB) caused by Fusarium graminearum is a destructive fungal disease of wheat. Natamycin is a natural polyene macrolide antifungal compound exhibiting broad-spectrum antifungal activity, but its efficacy and mechanism against F. graminearum remain unclear. In this study, the sensitivity of 47 F. graminearum strains from different regions of China to natamycin was determined. The results showed that natamycin had a good inhibitory effect with the EC50 value ranging from 0.93 to 4.04 μg/mL and a mean EC50 value of 2.20 ± 0.59 μg/mL. No resistance association was found between natamycin and five commonly used fungicides, and no synergistic effect was observed with tebuconazole or metconazole. Natamycin also enhanced wheat disease resistance by triggering ROS bursts and activating defense-related genes. DON (Deoxynivalenol) is a key virulence factor of F. graminearum. Importantly, natamycin significantly reduced DON production by downregulating the expression of DON biosynthesis gene FgTRI5 and transporter gene FgTRI12. Moreover, natamycin affected ergosterol content and lipid droplet accumulation, triggering stress responses. Metabolomics and activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) analyses further revealed that natamycin disrupts core metabolic and protein networks, supporting a multi-target regulatory pattern. Exogenous metabolite supplementation excluded metabolic interference, whereas ergosterol addition restored mycelial growth in a dose-dependent manner, confirming ergosterol as the primary target. Molecular dynamics simulation verified that natamycin inserts into the phospholipid bilayer and specifically binds ergosterol. Collectively, this study explores the potential membrane-targeting mode of action and provides an important scientific basis for the green control of FHB, as well as the development and target exploration of mycotoxin detoxifiers.

Protein ubiquitination by E3 ligases is crucial for plant growth and stress resistance. However, the mechanisms by which E3 ligases regulate rice immunity remain largely unclear. A previous study identified OsFBX388 as an E3 ligase that negatively regulates rice blast resistance. Here, we demonstrate that OsFBX388 interacts with OSK25 via its N-terminal F-box domain, thereby is a component of the SCF complex. Using its C-terminal domain, OsFBX388 targets OsHIPP56, a heavy metal-associated isoprenylated plant protein, for ubiquitination and degradation by the 26S proteasome. Meanwhile, knockout of OsFBX388 or overexpression of OsHIPP56 leads to substantial accumulation of OsHIPP56. Moreover, OsHIPP56 overexpression enhances resistance to multiple blast fungus strains and to bacterial blight without compromising yield. The HMA domain of OsHIPP56 is structurally similar to the integrated domains (IDs) of the sensor NLRs RGA5 and Pikp-1, which recognize the MAX effectors AvrPia and AvrPik-D from the blast fungus, respectively. We found that OsHIPP56 interacts with both AvrPia and AvrPik-D. Notably, AvrPia and AvrPik-D are also targeted by OsFBX388 for ubiquitination and degradation by the 26S proteasome. The interactions between OsHIPP56 and these MAX effectors accelerate the OsFBX388-mediated degradation of both OsHIPP56 and the MAX effectors. Furthermore, OsHIPP56 interacts with the HMA domains of the NLR receptors RGA5 and Pikp-1. Co-expression of OsHIPP56 with the NLR pairs RGA4/RGA5 or Pikp-1/Pikp-2 triggers cell death in rice protoplasts. Collectively, these findings reveal a coordinated regulatory mechanism in rice immunity, where an E3 ligase mediates the ubiquitination of both a host target and pathogen effectors.

To overcome limitations in the applications of existing SNP arrays in cotton genotyping and genomic selection (GS), we developed a liquid-phase SNP array, CottonSNP10K, for genomics-assisted breeding in cotton. Based on the high-quality reference genome of modern upland cotton cultivar NDM8, CottonSNP10K achieves precise probe design, and its marker system innovatively integrates the modern breeding genetic background, incorporating not only 13 agronomic traits associated loci (including fiber quality and yield-traits and stress resistance) identified via genome-wide association studies (GWAS), but also six exogenous gene markers targeting traits such as high lint percentage, herbicide resistance and insect resistance. The chip incorporates genome-wide background SNPs to ensure comprehensive genetic coverage, resulting in a final design comprising 11,159 SNPs, including 3,981 functionally trait-associated markers with 1,743 annotated genes and 7,178 genome-wide background markers. Through rigorous applications across diverse cotton accessions, CottonSNP10K performed exceptionally technical robustness with call rates > 99

Magnetic beads immobilized with affinity ligands act as a potent tool to fish the protein of interest (POI) interacting with bioactive compounds, proteins, or nucleic acids. The high loading capacity of affinity ligands is crucial to assay sensitivity. Herein, we report a simply fabricated cross-linked carboxylic magnetic bead, Fe3O4@poly(acrylic acid-co-divinylbenzene) (PAA-co-DVB), with a reticular network, exhibiting excellent magnetic response, high carboxylic functionality, and a fast reaction rate during amidation. Streptavidin (SA) is immobilized onto Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB through the encapsulation of appropriate pores, followed by covalent binding. The obtained Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB@SA displays a high biotin-binding capacity of 5347 pmol mg-1 and low nonspecific protein absorption with blocking. Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB@SA shows 1.65- and 1.55-fold higher sensitivity than commercial beads and non-cross-linked beads when fishing biotinylated proteins from pig liver lysates. The mode of immobilization was further studied, and control experiments revealed that the reticular network of Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB is indeed capable of encapsulating proteins, and the following amidation stabilizes the immobilization. Therefore, Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB@SA is applied to two practical cases of identifying protein-protein interaction and small molecule-protein interaction. TurboID identification of suppressor-of-G2-allele-of-skp1 (SGT1) interacting protein heat shock proteins (HSP90) in N. benthamiana reveals that the POI band enriched with Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB@SA is 7-fold denser than that of the positive control. Further verification of in vitro interaction of Mps1 (M. oryzae mitogen-activated protein kinase I) with compound A378-0, an ATP-competitive inhibitor of kinase, demonstrates a comprehensive understanding of the action mechanism and binding affinity between proteins and their interacting molecules, and shows the feasibility and sensitivity of Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB@SA in fishing the targeted protein for universal purposes. The excellent performance in application also offers the potential of Fe3O4@PAA-co-DVB to immobilize other affinity ligands and boost its further large-scale industrial production.

BACKGROUND:Environmentally sustainable management of plant fungal diseases requires green agrochemicals that combine high efficacy with novel modes-of-action. Rice blast caused by Magnaporthe oryzae is a destructive crop fungal disease, and developing botanical fungicides with new antifungal mechanisms is urgently needed for its green control. RESULTS:In this study, we report that an ethanol-petroleum ether crude extract of Hydnocarpus hainanensis seeds (designated DF2) strongly suppresses infection of the rice blast fungus M. oryzae. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of DF2 identified hydnocarpic acid and chaulmoogric acid as the principal antifungal constituents, which inhibit conidial germination, appressorium formation and plant infection by M. oryzae. Furthermore, treatment with DF2 significantly perturbed carnitine-related metabolites and severely attenuated fatty acid β-oxidation in M. oryzae conidia. Interestingly, exogenous addition of methylenecyclopropyl acetic acid to the M. oryzae conidial inoculum mimicked these effects, whereas supplementation with l-carnitine reversed them. CONCLUSION:Taken together, our findings indicate that hydnocarpic acid and chaulmoogric acid disrupt fatty acid β-oxidation and impede infection of M. oryzae, and suggest that DF2 could serve as a potential botanical fungicide to control fungal diseases of crops. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying plant responses to various stresses is crucial for improving crop productivity under stressful conditions. However, how plants prioritize the activation of pathways to balance disease resistance with drought and salt tolerance remains unclear. Here, we identify two regulatory modules centered on the rice protein OsSRLD, which negatively regulates disease resistance and positively regulates drought/salt tolerance. Upregulation of OsSRLD increases ABA content and reduces ROS levels under both normal and stressed conditions, suggesting its involvement in ABA signaling and ROS homeostasis. As an E3 ligase, OsSRLD interacts with OsIMα1a (a positive regulator of disease resistance) and promotes its ubiquitination and degradation via the 26S proteasome. Additionally, OsIMα1a interacts with OsWRKY53 (a positive regulator of disease resistance but a negative regulator of salt tolerance), thereby promoting the nuclear accumulation of OsWRKY53. Consistently, both overexpression of OsSRLD and knockout of OsIMα1a resulted in downregulation of OsWRKY53-activated genes and upregulation of OsWRKY53-inactivated genes. Furthermore, OsSRLD interacts with and stabilizes OsDIP1 (a positive regulator of drought and salt tolerance) via an E3 ligase-independent pathway. Together, our findings reveal that OsSRLD-OsIMα1a-OsWRKY53 and OsSRLD-OsDIP1 modules balance disease resistance and drought/salt tolerance through both E3 ligase-dependent and E3 ligase-independent pathways.

Rice is a staple crop for more than half of the world's population, and its sustainable production is vital to ensure global food security. However, rice is susceptible to several devastating fungal diseases1, including blast disease caused by Magnaporthe oryzae, sheath blight by Rhizoctonia solani, false smut by Ustilaginoidea virens, brown spot by Bipolaris oryzae, bakanae by Fusarium fujikuroi and head blight by Fusarium graminearum. The mechanisms underlying the susceptibility to these fungal diseases remain unclear. Here we report that the β subunit of SnRK1, SnRK1β1A, confers broad-spectrum susceptibility to these fungal diseases. Our findings show that diverse rice fungal pathogens have convergently evolved an effector-like protein, Gas2, which interacts with SnRK1β1A to prevent its ubiquitination-mediated degradation and promotes its nuclear translocation. SnRK1β1A is markedly induced on fungal infection, promoting susceptibility by inhibiting SnRK1α1, an α subunit of SnRK1 known to positively regulate broad-spectrum resistance in rice2. Notably, rice lines with disrupted SnRK1β1A are resistant to several fungal diseases without compromising growth and yield in the field under normal farming conditions. This study demonstrates that broad-spectrum disease resistance in crops can be achieved by disrupting inducible susceptibility genes whose encoded proteins are targeted by effectors conserved across several pathogens.

ObjectiveSoil moisture, as a key factor limiting vegetation growth on the Loess Plateau, further affects regional ecological restoration effectiveness by regulating plant uptake of soil elements. MethodsThis study investigated the coupling relationships between soil moisture and macronutrients (N, P, K, Ca, Mg), micronutrients (Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Ni), and non-essential elements (Cr, Pb, Cd, Al, Na) in soils and needles of Pinus tabuliformis forests with different stand ages (8, 10, 12, and 16 years) in rocky mountain area of the Loess Plateau. ResultsSoil moisture content in P. tabuliformis forests initially increased and then decreased with stand age. Additionally, soil moisture content in the 0−10 cm soil layer (9.52%−13.59%) was generally higher than that in the 10-20 cm soil layer (7.84%−12.23%) across different stand ages. Soils with different stand ages contained relatively high proportions of macronutrients K (19%−69%), Ca (10%−69%), and Mg (10%−23%), as well as the micronutrient Fe (97%−99%) and non-essential elements Al (68%−89%) and Na (11%−32%). Significant differences in elemental concentrations were observed among different stand ages and soil layers. Needles of P. tabuliformis contained relatively high proportions of macronutrients N (32%−43%), P (4%−32%), K (11%−26%), and Ca (6%−34%), as well as the micronutrients Fe (76%−90%) and Mn (4%−18%), and the non-essential elements Na (68%−83%) and Al (16%−31%). Among these elements, the concentrations of P, Ca, Mn, Cd, and Na were relatively sensitive to changes in stand age. P. tabuliformis exhibited strong absorption capacity for N and P across different stand ages. It showed strong enrichment effects for N, Mg, Mn, and Na under drought conditions, suggesting a certain degree of drought tolerance. ConclusionsSoil moisture significantly affects the elemental accumulation processes of P. tabuliformis forests. Therefore, rational regulation of soil moisture and elemental levels is essential for maintaining the health and stability of P. tabuliformis forest ecosystems.

Limited pangenome and ambiguous genomic architecture constrain comprehensive genetic variation discovery and cotton improvement. Here we assembled a telomere-to-telomere (T2T) genome for elite cultivar NDM13 and near-T2T genomes for 27 additional representatives of Gossypium hirsutum over the recent century, with transcriptomic profiling of 15 distinct tissues from each. We uncovered 51,551 one-to-one conserved orthologs across all genomes and landscapes of telomere, centromere, 45S rDNA, segmental duplication and copy number variant. We revealed hotspots of structural variation (SV) and impacts of SV, segmental duplication and copy number variant on gene expression or content alteration, as well as adversity resistances. We identified thousands of divergent SVs and genes implicated in modern breeding evolution. Combining T2T-reference-based pangenome construction and 761,536 SVs identified across 1,671 worldwide accessions with phenotypic data from 22 environments, we captured a number of hidden SVs that potentially influence critical breeding traits. These will boost genetic study and biotechnological improvement of the crop.

Vicia villosa is widely grown in China as a green manure crop. Investigations conducted in three fields in March of 2018 revealed a leaf spot disease on V. villosa with 25 to 50% incidence in Nanchong City, Sichuan Province, China. Infected leaves displayed irregularly shaped, scattered spots, and black mycelial layers grew on the spots' surfaces in humid environments. Leaves with typical pathological symptoms were photographed and sampled. To isolate the pathogens, the tissues from diseased and healthy junction areas on symptomatic leaves were excised, surface-sterilized, rinsed, and incubated on potato glucose agar (PCA) at 25 °C (Senanayake et al. 2020). Six pure isolates were obtained by single-spore isolation and deposited at the Culture Collection of JZB and CGMCC. The strain numbers of these six pure isolates are JZB3720009-JZB37200011 and CGMCC 3.25122-CGMCC 3.25124. On PCA plate, the colony reached 90 mm in diameter after 7 days at 25 ℃. Aerial hyphae were loose, appearing gray to gray-brown. Conidiophores are hyaline to pale brown, solitary, erect, separated, base with a narrowed basal cell, 22 to 100 μm. The apex of the conidiophores swelled, forming conidiogenous cells. Conidiogenous cells were brown to dark brown, solitary, smooth, slightly curved, subcylindrical, 7.1 to 17.0 × 5.1 to 6.8 µm (average: 12.7 × 5.9 µm, n = 20). Conidia are clustered, smooth-walled, straight, ellipsoid to cylindrical, tapering towards rounded ends, 2 to 3 but mostly 3 septate, basal and apical cells brown, middle cells dark brown with enlarged, 17.0 to 32.0 × 8.0 to 12.0 µm (average: 25.4 × 9.8 µm, n = 50). Morphologically, these isolates resembled species belonging to the genus Curvularia (Marin-Felix et al. 2017). Genomic DNA of the six isolates was extracted using a fungal DNA kit (Cat No.18812; Yeasen, Shanghai, China). The ITS region, gapdh and tef genes were amplified using the primers and procedures described by Raza et al. (2019) The sequences obtained in this study were deposited in GenBank with accession numbers PV608206 to PV608211 and PV615352 to PV615363. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using combined ITS-gapdh-tef sequences and the maximum likelihood method. In the phylogenetic tree, the six isolates and type strain CBS 144674 of C. rouhanii clustered together with high bootstrap support values (94). Additionally, our isolates’ sequences showed a high degree of similarity to those of CBS 144674 (ITS: 99.4%; gapdh: 99.8%; tef: 99.9%). Meanwhile, we found that our isolates were morphologically consistent with C. rouhanii described by Mehrabi-Koushki et al (2018). Based on both morphological characteristics and phylogenetic results, our isolates were identified as C. rouhanii. To assess pathogenicity, the spore suspension of isolate JZB3720009 (approximately 10 5 conidia/ml) was sprayed onto healthy leaves of one-month-old plants in a greenhouse at 18 to 28 ℃. Plants sprayed with sterilized water were used as negative controls. The test was conducted three times, each time with 10 plants. After 7 days, the leaves showed spot symptoms similar to those observed in the field; control plants remained healthy. The pathogen was reisolated and confirmed as C. rouhanii, thereby fulfilling Koch's postulates. To our knowledge, this is the first report of leaf spot disease caused by C. rouhanii on V. villosa in China and the world. This report will inform the development of targeted management strategies to control the disease.

Termite-associated Ophiocordyceps species remain understudied despite the high diversity of the genus. Here we describe Ophiocordyceps minuta (holotype CXAC 0026) from termites (Termitidae, Macrotermitinae) collected in Yunnan, China. Phylogenetic analyses based on nrLSU (nuclear large subunit ribosomal RNA), tef1-alpha (translation elongation factor 1-alpha), and rpb2 (RNA polymerase II second largest subunit) sequences resolve this fungus as a distinct lineage. Notably, deep genetic divergence (65 bp in tef1-alpha) between the two ex-type strains of the allied O. fusiformis (BCC 93025 and BCC 93026) reveals cryptic diversity within that nominal species. Beyond the new species, a morphological assessment of termite-associated Ophiocordyceps indicates that perithecial immersion status, ascospore morphology, and conidial features are the most taxonomically valuable characters for this ecological group. These findings expand the known diversity in southwest China and underscore the importance of integrating phylogenetic data with key morphological traits for species delimitation in under-explored habitats.

Trifolium repens L. is widely grown in China as a lawn plant, forage and green manure crop. Investigations conducted in September 2022 revealed a leaf spot disease on T. repens with an 35% incidence (100 plants were investigated) in Qinghezhizhou Park, Haidian District, Beijing, China. Infected leaves showed water-soaked V-shaped yellow lesions that later turned brown and eventually led to the death of the affected leaves. Leaves displaying typical pathological symptoms were photographed and collected for pathogen isolation and identification. Symptomatic leaf tissues were excised from the margin between healthy and diseased areas, surface sterilized with 2% NaClO for 2 min and 75% ethanol for 30 s, rinsed three times with sterile water, and incubated on potato dextrose agar at 25℃. Six pure isolates were obtained by single spore isolation and were deposited in the Culture Collection of the Institute of Plant Protection, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences (JZB). The strain numbers of these six pure isolates are JZB3720003-JZB3720008. On potato carrot agar (pH = 6.5), colonies reached 55 mm in diameter after 7 days at 25℃ under a 12 h light/12 h dark photoperiod. Aerial hyphae were fluffy, appearing white to light gray, and the reverse side of the colony was fawn to dark. Conidiophores were brown, solitary, straight or slightly curved, separated, occasionally branched, 68 - 212 um. Conidiogenous cells were pale brown, solitary or opposite, geniculate, 12.2 - 26.7 × 4.7 - 6.8 µm (average: 19.0 × 5.6 µm, n = 20). Conidia were slightly verruculose, clustered, straight or slightly curved, or geniculate, narrowly ellipsoidal or fusiform, 2 - 3 (mostly 3) septate, basal and apical cells brown, middle cells dark brown with enlarged, 17.8 - 27.8 × 6.1 - 11.9 µm (average: 24.1 × 9.0 µm, n = 30). Morphologically these isolates resembled species belonging to genus Curvularia, especially the C. trifolii (Sivanesan. 1987). Genomic DNA of the six isolates was extracted using a fungal DNA kit (Cat No.18812; Yeasen, Shanghai, China). The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (gapdh) and translation elongation factor-1α (tef-1α) genes were amplified using the primers and protocols described by Raza et al. (2019) The sequences obtained in this study were deposited in GenBank under accession numbers PV523576 to PV523581 and PV575979 to PV575990. Phylogenetic analysis was conducted using combined sequences of the four loci in the order of ITS-gapdh-tef and the maximum likelihood method. In the resulting phylogenetic tree, the six isolates clustered together with the representative strain CBS 173.55 of C. trifolii with high bootstrap support values (100). Additionally, all sequences of our isolates showed 100% identity to those of CBS 173.55. Meanwhile, we found that our isolates were morphologically consistent with C. trifolii described by Crous et al. (2011). Based on both morphological characteristics and phylogenetic results, the isolates were identified as C. trifolii. To assess pathogenicity, a spore suspension of isolate JZB3720003 (approximately 105 conidia/ml) was inoculated onto healthy leaves of one month old plants in a greenhouse at 18 - 28℃. Plants sprayed with sterilized water were used as blank controls. Ten randomly distributed inoculation points were set on each plant, with three plants inoculated per experiment, and the experiment was repeated three times. After 7 days, the leaves of the inoculated plants developed spot symptoms similar to those observed in the field, while the control plants remained healthy. The pathogen was reisolated and confirmed as C. trifolii, thereby fulfilling Koch's postulates. Curvularia trifolii has a wide host range, with over forty recorded host species (USDA-FUNGUS HOST DATABASE. https://fungi.ars.usda.gov/). There have been reports of C. trifolii causing leaf spot disease on T. repens in the United States, Japan, Kenya, and Australia (USDA-FUNGUS HOST DATABASE. https://fungi.ars.usda.gov/). In China, C. trifolii and its synonym, the fungus Brachysporium trifolii have been reported to infect the Trifolium sp., but there is no specific report indicating the exact host (Tai 1979). To our knowledge, this is the first report of leaf spot disease caused by C. trifolii on T. repens in China. This report expands the disease data repository for T. repens in China, which will be helpful in developing targeted management strategies for controlling the disease and reducing epidemic risks.

BACKGROUND:Rice blast, which is caused by the fungal pathogen Magnaporthe oryzae, is one of the most devastating diseases on rice worldwide. The effectiveness of chemical fungicides is being increasingly challenged by pathogen resistance and environmental pollution, underscoring the urgent need for eco-friendly biocontrol alternatives. Herein, we report the antifungal potential of bioactive components in Saussurea costus against M. oryzae infection and explore the underlying mechanism. RESULTS:Essential oil (EO) from Saussurea costus roots was screened from the plant EOs library, and exhibited excellent preventive effects against M. oryzae at a concentration of 100 μg mL-1. Bio-guided isolation of Saussurea costus EO identified dehydrocostus lactone (DHLC) as the active ingredient. The chemical structure of DHLC was determined through spectroscopic analyses. DHLC displayed potent antifungal activity, with half-maximal effective concentration (EC50) values of 17.76 μg mL-1 and 9.88 μg mL-1 against conidial germination and appressorium formation, respectively. DHLC disrupted cell wall integrity and membrane permeability and inhibited autophagy in M. oryzae. DHLC also demonstrated broad-spectrum protective effects against several other species of phytopathogenic fungi. CONCLUSION:The results of our study demonstrate that DHLC isolated from Saussurea costus roots prevents rice blast disease by inhibiting the infection-related morphogenesis of M. oryzae, highlighting its potential as an alternative bioagent to control fungal diseases in plants. © 2026 Society of Chemical Industry.

Magnaporthe oryzae exhibits significant genetic polymorphism in paddy fields. This study collected and isolated 832 single-spore isolates from major rice-producing areas of 17 provinces in six geographical regions across China, analyzing their mating-type distribution, fertility variation, and underlying mechanisms. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays revealed a significantly higher proportion of the MAT1-2 mating type (79.21%) than MAT1-1 (20.79%), with severely skewed ratios in some regions. Correlation analysis indicated that mating-type distribution was significantly associated with effective accumulated temperature (≥10 °C). MAT1-1 was predominantly concentrated in regions with 4500–7000 degree-days, whereas MAT1-2 was mainly found in regions with 2500–5000 degree-days. Cross-culture fertility tests yielded an average fertility rate of 36.54% and mean perithecia production of 25.7 per isolate, suggesting generally low fertility, with MAT1-2 isolates showing significantly higher fertility than MAT1-1. This study demonstrates that regional M. oryzae populations in China exhibit both mating-type imbalances and fertility deficiency, suggesting rare genetic recombination in natural populations and evolution primarily driven by asexual reproduction.

INTRODUCTION:The NIGT1/HHO subfamily of transcription factors in plants plays a crucial role in perceiving and integrating nutrient signals, regulating developmental processes, and mediating stress responses. However, the functions of NIGT1/HHO proteins in hormone signaling and their involvement in biotic and abiotic stress responses remain incompletely characterized. OBJECTIVES:We aimed to elucidate how OsHHO3 integrates into brassinosteroid (BR) and abscisic acid (ABA) signaling pathways, thereby modulating disease resistance and drought tolerance in rice. METHODS:We employed protein interaction assays (e.g., yeast two-hybrid, co-immunoprecipitation assays and pull-down assays), phosphorylation modification assays (e.g., in vivo and in vitro kinase assays), transcription factor binding assays (e.g., dual-luciferase reporter assay, electrophoretic mobility shift assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by qPCR), and phenotypic and biochemical assays of transgenic rice lines (overexpression and CRISPR-Cas9 knockouts). RESULTS:The gain-of-function mutant hho3-D and OsHHO3-overexpressing lines show BR deficiency and BR insensitivity, indicating that OsHHO3 participates in BR signaling. The GSK3-like kinase GSK2 interacts with and phosphorylates OsHHO3 at Ser283 and Ser312, contributing to its stabilization. Acting as a transcriptional repressor, OsHHO3 directly binds the promoter of OsBZR1 and suppresses its expression. OsHHO3 also physically interacts with OsBZR1, and promotes its degradation through the 26S proteasome pathway. Furthermore, OsHHO3 negatively regulates disease resistance by directly repressing defense-related genes. Knockout of OsHHO3 leads to enhanced resistance both to fungal blast and bacteria blight, without compromising rice growth. In addition, OsHHO3 and GSK2 positively regulate drought tolerance, likely via the ABA signaling pathway. Accordingly, OsHHO3 directly represses ABA-catabolic genes as well as other negative regulators of drought tolerance. Notably, co-expression with GSK2 significantly enhances the repressive activity of OsHHO3 on its target genes. CONCLUSION:Our findings underscore the importance of the GSK2-OsHHO3 module in the coordinated regulation of disease resistance and drought tolerance via interplaying BR and ABA signaling in rice.

Chamaemelum nobile L. (Asteraceae), commonly known as Roman chamomile, is a perennial herb with branched rhizomes and multiple leafy stems. The length of the complete cp genome is 149,827 bp, and it comprises 128 genes, including 83 protein-coding genes, 8 ribosomal RNA genes, and 37 transfer RNA genes. By conducting phylogenetic analyses based on chloroplast genomes, we found that C. nobile was more closely related to Matricaria chamomilla var. recutita within the chamomile species. This finding contributes to a better understanding of the phylogenetic relationship between C. nobile and other species.