This research utilizes satellite data to analyze the land displacement in the region. The PS-InSAR technique utilizes long-term coherent radar measurements from synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images to produce high-resolution maps of surface displacement, making it an effective tool for monitoring and assessing ground subsidence in regions with high urbanization and industrial activities. In this research, 166 Sentinel-1 images were taken in the study area between 2016 and 2021. All the images collected are in ascending path. For processing the Persistent Scatterer Interferometry Synthetic Aperture Radar (PS-InSAR) data, Sarproz software is used for analysis. According to the results, a high amount of subsidence was recorded in the urban part of the research area, where urbanization takes place. The high rate of cumulative displacement monitored in the study area is 12 mm/year. The remaining part of the study area show lower subsidence or no subsidence as compared to the urban part. According to the report of the Kanchipuram district, displacement is caused by a decrease in groundwater levels due to over-extraction of under groundwater. This study indicates that in the study area, major management planning should be implemented for using the groundwater.

Landslide is one of the most common occurring natural disasters in the Himalayan terrain due to its rugged topography, steep slopes, and structural instability. The repercussions of landslides in Himalaya are often devastating, leading to loss of life, property, and infrastructure. Therefore, it is important to monitor landslides and reduce its consequences for which the state-of-the-art Persistent scatterers-Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PS-InSAR) technique is readily used nowadays. The present study illustrates a combined approach using PS-InSAR and a semi-quantitative empirical model for landslide risk micro-zonation utilizing the case study of Solang village (Himachal Pradesh, India). The analysis exhibits that a large part of the village is undergoing deformation with a subsidence rate of upto 80 mm/year near the crown portion of the landslide. The risk analysis indicates that 50

The Kumaun Himalaya is considered as the most active part of the Central Seismic gap in the Indian Sub-continent. In this paper, we presented active surface deformation rates of the Kumaun region from February 2017 to February 2021 using the Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSI) technique. The cumulative displacement that occurred during the span of 4 years is ±55 mm, whereas the Line of Sight (LOS) deformation velocity rate ranges is ±7 mm/yr. Apart from PSI, we also estimated the b-value of the Kumaun region from 1803 to 2021 (399 events) and its value is 0.54 ± 0.03. A distinct NE-SW trend of b-value is observed where earthquakes with M > 6 occurred towards NE of this trend. The PSI-derived deformation reveals that the central part of the Inner Lesser Himalaya along with the Main Central Thrust (MCT) zone is dominated by uplift. The zone between the Munsiari Thrust (MT) and MCT in the central region shows the maximum uplift ranging 5–7 mm/yr which exactly lies above the mid-crustal ramp of the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT). Our results are well corroborated with available observations of geodetic strain and peak ground acceleration values. However, the deformation patterns and high-velocity rates in the central part of the study area between MT and MCT indicate the accumulation of high stress.

Ground deformation is a widespread phenomenon that accelerates due to anthropogenic land development. Thus reclaimed/created land is more vulnerable to deformation and subsidence, especially in mountain areas. Advanced Differential Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry (A-DInSAR) can be used to monitor such projects. The Pakyong Airport is an engineering feat, constructed by cutting a mountain and converting it into a tabletop in a landslide-prone zone and seismically active region of the Sikkim Himalayas. The cutting of hill slopes for airport construction and other anthropogenic activities has increased slope instability in the region. This paper studies the slow-moving landslides in the airport neighbourhood using A-DInSAR on Sentinel-1 time series data consisting of 64 images of ascending track and 82 images of the descending track. The time period of monitoring was from October 2014 to April 2018 (43 months). The images have been connected using the Minimum Spanning Tree graph for interferogram generation for estimating deformation. The atmospheric noise was removed, and the results enabled the identification of deformation (in line-of-sight) on the airstrip as well as in the neighbouring area, both the upslope and downslope of the airport. The deformation rates estimated were up to ±90 mm/year in Pakyong from both tracks. We could successfully capture such land movement associated with the Pakyong Airport construction and help assess the impacts of infrastructure construction on the slope stability of the area. The controlling factors such as precipitation, seismicity, geology and others were analysed with respect to the deformation obtained. This study helps in assessing the land deformation after construction (cutting and filling of the slope) in the area. The deformation detected in this study needs to be addressed for the safety of the residents as well as for the infrastructure present in the area.

The current geodetic investigation is based on nearly a decade of continuous Global Positioning System (GPS) data towards the western part of the Indian Plate (2009–2019). This research focused on the Kachchh Rift Basin (KRB), the seismically most active intra‐plate region of the Indian Plate, which has seen three ≥ M 7.0 earthquakes in the last two centuries. The GPS stations on the northern and southern margins show SSW and NNE directed motion, indicating that the KRB is currently under the influence of regional compressive stress on both flanks and the same is reflected in the form of earthquake activity in the center portion. Furthermore, the existence of intra‐basin stress, in addition to regional stress, increases strain accumulation and results in the creation of a Principal Deformation Zone (PDZ) in the central part of the KRB. The average annual deformation in the middle of KRB remains 1.0 ± 0.5 mm/year, while sites near the South Wagad Fault (SWF) experience 1.2 mm/year of fault parallel motion. The dominant fault normal motion along the flanks with a maximum fault parallel motion in the middle intimates the existence of strike‐slip tectonics in the central Kachchh. The geometric relationship of strike‐slip faults in a compressive margin and strain accumulation in pre‐existing faults (PDZ) is responsible for current strike‐slip and thrust motion in the Kachchh, including the 2001 Bhuj earthquake (M 7.7). Our geodetic model is well‐corroborated with the geological observations of the wrench fault model of strike‐slip faults. PS‐InSAR results in the northern part of the region between Khadir and Bela Islands show ≤6.0 mm of annual LOS displacement. GPS results indicate ≈ 1.3 to 1.4 ± 0.5 mm/year of fault parallel motion along the transverse Ekal Amrapar Fault (EAF). The non‐significant variation in GRACE‐derived TWS values (from 2009 to 2018) rules out non‐tectonic deformation in the vicinity of EAF and thus points to tectonic activity as the cause of the derived deformation in the region.

The surface subsidence in the Krishna Godavari (KG) basin in India has increased with the discovery of crude oil and natural gas reserves since 1983. With private players coming up to bag the exploration and refining contracts, there must be timely monitoring of the surface subsidence of the region so that remedial measures for the resettlement of the populations can be taken promptly. Regular monitoring is necessary since the region is fertile and any seawater ingress results in the loss of valuable cultivable land. Multi-temporal SAR Interferometry (MTInSAR) technique has been applied successfully all over the world for the study and regular monitoring of land surface subsidence scenarios. This study utilizes data from Sentinel-1 C-band SAR sensor for MTInSAR-based surface subsidence and RADAR Vegetation Index (RVI)-based vegetation loss for the same season estimation between 2017 and 2022 for the KG basin region. It is inferred from the study that the region has shown surface subsidence of 80 mm/year between April 2020 and June 2022. This study uses support vector regressor (SVR) to predict the loss in forest cover in terms of RVI using MTInSAR-based surface subsidence, VH, and VV backscatter as parameters. It is observed that the SVR gave R 2 -statistics of 0.89 and 0.873 in the training and testing phases with a mean absolute error (MAE) and root mean squared error (RMSE) of 0.08 and 0.02, respectively. It is also observed that the region showed a loss of 3.21 km 2 of cultivable land between 2020 and 2022.

In the present study, the rate of deformation of the Kashmir basin has been determined using the Sentinel-1A based Persistent Scatterer Interferometry Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSInSAR). The study reveals highest rate of uplift in the Pir-Panjal range (8-13 mm/y) whereas, in the Saribal range the rate of upliftment is 5-6 mm/y. The line of sight displacement in the Kashmir basin was recorded in the range of-20 to +30 mm/y over the period of 2015 to 2021. However, the temporal displacement variation in the Kashmir valley varies in different years during the observation period and was found maximum in the year 2021. The Persistent Scatterer Inter-ferometry (PSI) clearly show dominant uplift in the valley and surrounding hill ranges. The PSInSAR results were further validated with the GPS based deformation rates, which indicates a maximum of 10 mm/yr of deformation in the study area. The high / lows of gravity and magnetic based surveys are well corroborated with the observed positive and negative anomalies of present PSInSAR velocity results. Further, the Global Positioning System (GPS) based crustal strain results are also collectively substantiating our PSInSAR based crustal behaviour of the Kashmir basin.

Land surface deformation created by mining activities can have negative impacts on the environment. Measuring them can be a tool for managing the environmental impacts of mining. Synthetic Aperture Radar Interferometry is a remote sensing method for measuring deformations. The main aim of this research is to investigate the deformation phenomenon on a region scale and extend our understanding of it to all mining deformation areas across the country. This paper used Small Baseline Subset Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar technology to obtain deformations information in the Sangan mine based on mining activities. We used 48 scenes of Single Look Complex(SLC) data acquired by the Sentinel-1A, C-band of the European Space Agency descending orbit paths from 2014 to 2020. The Time Series of SBAS results show that the deformation velocity rate is about –20 to –35 mm/yr, and the displacement is attributed to approximately –120 mm in the Line of Sight direction. The main deformation zone is situated in the mining area on the main alluvial fan. This study presented the relationship between deformations and mining activity's effects on the ground. Mining activities were accompanied by ground deformation in the mining area: the ground deformation is exacerbated by the increasing mining quantity, and as a result will cause erosion, flood, and other geomorphologic phenomena in the area. We compared the results of the SBAS technique with leveling data for validating the data of SBAS. Their comparison shows approximately suitable agreement with the results of SBAS.

Urban land and its expansion have profoundly impacted the global environment, including the stress change in the earth’s subsurface, even though urban land is a small fraction of the global land surface. Divulging such effects has never been more important, given the role of stress in determining the safety of the urban population against earthquakes. However, knowledge of this time-dependent non-linear effect of urbanization on the subsurface remains in the gray area. This study focuses on the area surrounding Delhi, the capital city of India, to understand the relative contribution of the building load created by rapid urbanization in exacerbating the subsurface state-of-stress. The results highlight that, since 2010, the modulation in the seismicity rate and the stability of basement thrust faults is linked not only to urbanization but also to decadal groundwater storage. Mounting evidence suggests that the rapid urbanization, and the resulting non-tectonic horizontal compression, stabilize faults in the Aravalli Delhi belt, which are destabilized due to the extensive groundwater extraction. This affects the decadal seismicity trend around the Aravalli Delhi fold belt. Nonetheless, the magnitude of this time-dependent deformation influence on the seismicity modulation remains uncertain. The findings from this study quantify the geomechanical impacts of urbanization in the Delhi area for the first time.

The February 7, 2021, Joshimath flood scenario was one such event that caused widespread damage and led to complete washout of the many hydroelectric power projects located on the course of Dhauliganga River. The physical monitoring and mapping of such events is a difficult task that often involves deployment of labour force in inhospitable terrains. Therefore, remote sensing techniques are used for the mapping and machine learning model-based predictions for future scenarios. Synthetic Aperture RADAR (SAR) remote sensing has been widely used over the years for accurate estimation of many natural and anthropogenic disaster events. This study utilizes Persistent Scatterer SAR interferometry (PSInSAR) technique to map the surface displacement of the 2021 flood scenario and make predictions for future displacement using a Deep Learning Neural Network (DLNN) model. 16 images of both ascending and descending pass were taken for the estimation of Line of Sight (LOS) displacement velocity mapping between January 2020 and April 2021 for Tapovan area. Further, 36 images from January 2020 to December 2022, in ascending and descending passes were used for prediction and validation of future LOS surface displacement using a DLNN model for Joshimath town to see the possible impact of February 7, 2021 event. The PSInSAR LOS displacements were found to be −1.2 ​cm–1.2 ​cm between January 1, 2020 and April 14, 2021, for Tapovan region where the floods had occurred on February 7, 2021. The predicted LOS displacement was observed to be −10 cm–10 ​cm for December 2022 for Joshimath town. These observations clearly indicate the impact of the event to Joshimath town and as one of the causative factors of recent observations of widespread cracks in the buildings in the region.

This study explores the Persistent Scatterer Interferometry technique to identify the developing pattern of groundwater depletion-induced land subsidence in Lucknow, northern India. The results show the development of two significant subsidence zones, one each in the north and south of Lucknow. The situation is potentially alarming as ∼9.3% (∼27.6 km2) of the total area is under the expression of a weak degree of subsidence (∼10–40 mm/yr). The detected displacement trends substantially correspond to the constant dwindling of groundwater levels in the city, further indicating that the first unconfined aquifer is under high stress and faces a continuous storage capacity loss with time. The time-series displacement trends have been later forecasted using the Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average method, indicating the city might face subsidence at the rate of ∼25–40 mm/yr. The findings of this study are significant to take precise mitigation measures in the areas facing continuous groundwater depletion on a long-term basis.

The study of drainage patterns in tectonically active regions is conducive to the prediction of regional geomorphology. Subtle subsurface changes can be detected by drainage conditions and manifested in the form of drainage anomalies. The Satluj valley of Bilaspur, which is traversed by numerous faults in northwest Himalayan region, was selected to analyze the effect of active tectonics on drainage evolution. With the Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PS-InSAR) technique, SENTINEL-1A data were used to estimate the active surface deformation between September 2015 and December 2020. The results show that the region between Barasar Thrust (BrT) and Main Central Thrust (MCT) is undergoing deformation of ±12 mm/yr. The Stream Power Incision Model (SPIM) was used to predict deformation patterns. To validate the tectonic activity generated by the drainage network, seismic b-values were calculated, indicating the accumulating stresses. This study shows the importance of drainage anomalies in tectonically active areas. When used in close combination with other seismotectonic parameters, drainage anomalies can be effective in delineating tectonically active regions.

Active surface deformation, displacement pattern, and erosional variability is estimated using the geomorphologically sensitive morphometry along with the Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSInSAR) technique using the Sentinel-1 Adata (119 images) acquired between 07- 02-2017 and 10-02-2021. The average velocities for this dataset are estimated to be between +/- 11 mm/y. The Raunthi River catchment from where the flood was triggered is undergoing similar to 8 mm/y subsidence and similar to 10 mm/y uplift. Compared to this the basin wide deformation (Rishi Ganga basin) is estimated to be around +/- 10 mm/y with commulative ground displacement of around +/- 45 mm. The times series analysis suggests an increase in the ground displacement by around 5 mm/y and seems to be responsible for the expansion of pre-existing cracks in the vicinity of the Vaikrita Thrust (VT) and subsequent failure of the northern face of Nandi Peak on 7th February 2021. The Global Positioning System (GPS) derived strain distribution pattern indicate a relatively higher accumulation of strain (>0.35 mu strain/y). The normalized steepness index (k(sn)) variation along the longitudinal section of Rishi Ganga and Raunthi River sub-basin in Central Himalayan region shows anomalous increase at the glacio-fluvial transitional processes. Moreover, the chi profiles as well as planform plots shows anomalously lower values within the Raunthi River sub-basin when compared with the Rishi Ganga basin. Based on the lower values of chi it is observed that Raunthi River sub-basin is undergoing high erosion which can be caused by the presence of sheared lithology and incision of the relict glacial and paraglacial sediments. We negate the suggestion that abrupt rise in the temperature was the major triggering mechanism for the recent disaster, instead it is the sheared lithology and preexisting fissure developed because of differential uplift and subsidence in Raunthi River that led to the wedge failure and subsequent flash flood. Had the climate was the major driver of the recent tragedy ?, it should have impacted multiple hanging glaciers in the Rishi Ganga valley. Therefore, the study calls for detailed geomorphological, structural and glaciological investigation in regions dominated by glacial and paraglacial processes in the strategic regions of the Himalaya. Towards this, the state of art PSInSAR technique seems to provide fast and reliable detection of terrain instability/stability along with identification of potential areas of slope failures in near future in the glacial and preglacial zones. (C) 2021 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Sentinel-1 is an active synthetic aperture radar (SAR) satellite with a ${C}$ -band SAR sensor operating at a center frequency of 5.405 GHz and a wavelength of 5.55 cm. With the availability of freely available SAR datasets from Sentinel-1, the persistent scatterer SAR interferometry (PSInSAR)-based urban surface subsidence mapping has become easy. However, apart from geological causes, the major cause of urban surface subsidence is the over-exploitation of groundwater that results in piezometric pressure loss in the aquifers resulting in net subsidence. With the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite sensor, the groundwater level fluctuations can be very easily studied temporally. But the coarse spatial resolution of GRACE data makes the study of groundwater fluctuations difficult to study for smaller watersheds. This study aims to correlate the PSInSAR average surface line of sight (LOS) displacement from Sentinel-1, with the average groundwater fluctuations from the GRACE sensor temporally from May 2017 to February 2022. The study also compared the correlation between PSInSAR displacement in both VV and VH polarizations and observed the ${R} ^{{2}}$ values to be 0.63 and 0.65 for VV and VH polarizations, respectively, with GRACE data. After that, using the displacement and groundwater level fluctuation data, an estimation of a gravimetric anomaly due to a decrease in groundwater level was carried out for Varanasi city. The ${R} ^{{2}}$ , mean absolute error (MAE), and root-mean-square error (RMSE) were observed to be 0.84, 1.23, and 2.4, respectively, in gravimetric anomaly estimation, thus giving sufficient acceptance for interoperability of the two sensors.

The co-seismic deformation of the 28th April 2021 Assam earthquake with a magnitude of 6.4 has been investigated using the Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSInSAR). The results obtained from the PSInSAR are validated with the results of the Global Positioning System (GPS). It is observed that the coseismic deformation of the earthquake is not visible because of the atmospheric noise. Therefore, we used the Sentinel-1 time-series data of the area to minimize the atmospheric noise effect the data using the Atmospheric Phase Screening (APS) processing of Sentinel-1 time series data. The time-series analysis shows minor changes that occurred during the earthquake. Firstly, the detection of coherence-based changes was carried out to identify the most affected areas, caused by the earthquake. The results of time series analysis suggest that the region located to the north of the Brahmaputra River is subsiding at a much faster rate (-25 to -75 mm/y) than its southern counterpart, where the southern part is subsiding with an average velocity of -0.1 to -15 mm/y. The subsided locations identified using the PSInSAR are further confirmed by the presence of liquefaction features, ground cracks, and tilted buildings related to post-liquefaction ground settlement. To see the deformation along the Bomdila Fault (BF), re-analysis of the available GPS results has been carried out and the derived results reveal a significant amount of deformation (similar to 4 mm/y) associated with BF and Jorhat Fault (JF); whereas the deformation associated with Kopili Fault (KF) is 3.14 mm/y. Further, our results suggest the presence of compressional strain in the BF zone, while extensional strain in the KF zone. The earthquake focal mechanism analysis suggests that the event of the April 2021 was primarily associated with the BF rather than the KF.

Globally the land subsidence is a significant problem of the rapidly growing urban area. The factor responsible for the land subsidence caused by over-exploitation of the underground fluid such as water, petroleum, and gas respectively. In present study we present the result of detail investigation of active ground subsidance in New Delhi, National Capital Region (NCR). This area indicates a high rate of urban growth during the past decades. To analyze the land subsidence, we used multiple SAR sensor data and exploited the PS-InSAR technique. The data used for this study are Cosmo-skymed acquired between 08/06/2011 to 15/11/2017, Sentinel-1A-B (18-12-2014 to 2711-2018), and ALOS PALSAR acquired between 19/01/2007 and 20/01/2011. These radar sensors operate in X, C, and L-band, which covers over ten years, from 2007 to 2018. The PSI results of Cosmo-skymed reveals that the Delhi NCR region has undergone an average deformation +/- 15 mm/y, a maximum surface deformation observed from ALOS-PALSAR is 10 to 18 mm/y and the ground displacement observed from the SENTINAL-1A data is -2 to 16 mm/y. Groundwater level data also collected for the same period and a ground water level depletion compared with the subsidence. Monitoring land subsidence with ground-based conventional technology is timeconsuming and can be carried out in a limited area due to the financial implication. PS-InSAR is an established method to detect the surface movement using the SAR sensor's time-series data. The result shows that a twenty centimeter of land subsidence is visible in some areas, validated with the collected ground evidence. The affected area is also showing resemblance to the groundwater depleting condition in those areas. This study also establish that multiple sensor data can be used to monitor the long term land subsidence. (c) 2021 COSPAR. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The key objective of the present study is to estimate the surface displacement and to understand/monitor the active deformation pattern in the Kachchh region post the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake by implementing the Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSI) and Differential Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (DInSAR) techniques. We employed the ENVISAT ASAR (15 images), ALOS PALSAR (6 pairs) and SENTINEL-1A (117 images) data sets acquired during the periods 2003–2005, 2007–2009, and 2016–2020 respectively. The PSI results of the Envisat dataset reveals that the Kachchh mainland region has undergone an average surface deformation of ± 22 mm/yr during 2003–2005. The maximum displacement observed from the ALOS PALSAR data sets (Window-1 to 6) during the period 2007–2009 is ∼ ± 1.2 cm. Further, the ground displacement observed from the Sentinel-1A dataset during the period 2016–2020 is ±16 mm/yr for the west-central region and 6 mm/yr uplift and 8 mm/yr subsidence in the eastern Kachchh mainland region. Surprisingly, high rate of deformation is detected towards the Pachham Island, Banni, Rann and the eastern region of the Kachchh after the 2001 Bhuj event. Correlating the results of different data sets, it is concluded that the deformation is high near the vicinity of the fault zones indicating the tectonically active nature of the faults. From the obtained results, we infer that, post the 2001 Bhuj earthquake, the surface displacement in the Kachchh mainland region is escalated till 2009 which is due to continuous aftershock activity and then started declining because of the ongoing seismic settlement. The acquired deformation rates are correlating well with the GPS derived displacement rates. Further, our results will assist in accurately demarcating the extent of the fault zones and also helps in precisely marking the areas undergoing active deformation, which will aid in micro zonation studies, mitigation planning and also for the preparation of an active tectonic map for the region.

Roads are the most critical means of connectivity in Himalayan villages. However, the terrain is inherently fragile with varied geological, geomorphological, ecological, and climate regimes, that result in frequent slope failure and disruption in connectivity. The risk is further to be increased by extreme events-generated hazards, which are expected to rise in frequency and magnitude with ongoing climate change. Critical scientific intervention, however, can improve the sustainability of road networks. The present study attempts to analyse and quantify the impacts of a major road widening project initiated in 2018 in the upper Ganga catchment, Uttarakhand Himalaya which has destabilised valley slopes along the widened segments. Also, a large quantity of excavated sediments is dumped down slopes, which is posing a threat to aquatic biodiversity. The estimates are based on Google Earth imagery of a few representative road segments recently widened in the upper Ganga catchment, which indicate a substantial increase in the landslide and unstable slope area following the road widening. The increase in unstable slope area is attributed to improper road widening approaches and poor slope management in seismically active Himalayan terrain. Further, the mean velocity plots of Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PSInSAR) indicate that the segments undergoing road widening are coherent with areas of significant earth surface change. A broad correlation between the road width and sediment yield indicates that even a slight increase in road width can result in a large-scale mass removal from the toe of the hillslope, inflicting cascading impact on hillslopes. The study recommends a more flexible road construction approach based on the environmental and geological aspects of the terrain for sustainable road networks. Further, the impact of climate change is looming over the Himalayas, and the relation between climate change and its potential effects on the stability of slopes remains an open issue.

Subsidence has been adversely affecting Jharia Coalfield (JCF) for the last few decades. This study attempts to show the feasibility of the modified Persistent Scatterer Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (PS-InSAR) technique with C-band SAR data to investigate the slow surface deformation caused by coal mine fire and underground mining activities in JCF. Also, a multi-temporal analysis of SAR images of ENVISAT ASAR has been carried out for monitoring and mapping of temporal land subsidence of the area under study. The modified PSI technique has proven its ability to detect land subsidence over the vegetated and rural areas. It also resolves low spatial density of permanent scatterers by considering partially correlated scatterers as permanent scatterers (PSs) and extracting information from these PSs. The study has been concentrated towards detecting continuous slow rate subsidence of five major sites of JCF. The maximum rate of slow deformation among all sites is recorded as 29 mm/year with a cumulative subsidence value of 90 mm. Field validation of subsidence results obtained through PS-InSAR is correlated with the previously published report and the master plan of JCF, showing subsidence locations. Conclusively, the adopted methodology is practically feasible for detection, monitoring and mapping of slow deformation using C-band SAR data in coal mine area.

The accumulation of crustal strain towards the western part of India, especially in the Kachchh Rift basin, is making one of the most seismically active parts of the Indian plate. Several strong to major earthquakes, including the recent 2001 (M7.7) Bhuj earthquake, were triggered in the Kachchh rift basin during the last two centuries. Therefore, in the present study, we have attempted to quantify crustal deformation towards the eastern part of mainland Kachchh using PSInSAR and GPS data from 2014 to 2019. The average LOS displacement of 4.3 ​mm/yr has been observed along the eastern segment of the Katrol Hill Fault (KHF). The deformation in this part can be correlated with the accumulation of strain along the hanging wall side of the south-dipping KHF. The accumulated strain is reflected in the form of seismic activity in this part and highlights the importance of the KHF zone for seismic hazard analysis. The PS-InSAR results are in good correlation with the GPS results of this part.