Our study investigated what factors contribute to the perceived usability of Virtual Reality technology by small firms operating in a conservative industry. For this purpose, we interviewed the developers and users of a newly developed Virtual Reality-equipped heavy machinery. We conducted eleven semi-structured interviews and used thematic analysis to identify the main themes that influenced the perceived usability of the technology by the consumers. This was significant as it contributed to their decisions about purchasing and continuing to use the technology. Consequently, it impacted the developers of the technology in their competitive capability in a conservative and homogenous industrial arena. The dimension and depth of perceived usability by this specific groups are discussed, and the practical implications are provided.

This paper provides a stagewise overview of the important issues that play a role in technology adoption and use in organizations. In the current literature, there is a lack of consistency and clarity about the different stages of the technology adoption process, the important issues at each stage, and the differentiation between antecedents, after-effects, enablers, and barriers to technology adoption. This paper collected the relevant issues in technology adoption and use, mentioned dispersedly and under various terminologies, in the recent literature. The qualitative literature review was followed by thematic analysis of the data. The resulting themes were organized into a thematic map depicting three stages of the technology adoption process: pre-change, change, and post-change. The relevant themes and subthemes at each stage were identified and their significance discussed. The themes at each stage are antecedents to the next stage. All the themes of the pre-change and change stages are neutral, but the way they are managed and executed makes them enablers or barriers in effect. The thematic map is a continuous cycle where every round of technology adoption provides input for the subsequent rounds. Based on how themes have been addressed and executed in practice, they can either enhance or impair the subsequent technology adoption. This thematic map can be used as a qualitative framework by academics and practitioners in the field to evaluate technological changes.

This research investigated the organizational challenges related to the development and implementation of virtual reality (VR) technology for operation in a conservative heavy machinery industry. The incorporation of a VR solution for heavy machinery equipment enhanced the safety and convenience of operation under dangerous work conditions. However, the development and implementation processes faced challenges. Furthermore, the adoption of the solution by users was perceived to be slower than anticipated. We aimed to explore the main challenges that the developer organization faced and how it also influenced user organizations. Due to the exploratory nature of the research, qualitative analysis was chosen, interviews were conducted, and thematic analysis was applied. The themes and subthemes were identified and discussed. The results showed the existence of challenges related to technology maturity, managerial challenges regarding communication and support coordination, workload, and multiple stakeholder management. The findings emphasize the importance of attending to the existing and potential organizational challenges before and throughout technological innovation. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed, and a future research agenda is suggested.

Sense of presence has been often explored in the context of virtual reality (VR) and immersive visual technologies; however, standardized and objective measures of the sense of presence have been difficult to find. Studies attempting to find physiological correlates of sense presence using electroencephalography (EEG) have reported mixed results. In the present study, we used brain event-related potentials (ERPs) elicited by auditory stimuli to identify an objective physiological index of sense of presence during VR, attempting to replicate the findings of previous studies and explain the heterogeneity of results reported in the literature. Participants in our experiment were asked to experience an immersive virtual environment using a modern head-mounted display while passively hearing task-irrelevant frequent standard and infrequent deviant tones as in a classic auditory oddball paradigm. Subsequently, they were asked to complete a battery of questionnaires aimed to estimate their sense of presence during the VR. EEG and questionnaire data from three-seventh participants were analyzed. ERP components evoked by the auditory stimuli were then analyzed. Late ERP components (after 450 ms from stimulus onset) registered over central brain areas were associated with the sense of presence as measured with questionnaires, while earlier components were not associated with presence. The use of different questionnaires and the content of the VR environment may both be a plausible explanation for heterogeneous results as reported in previous studies. The present study showed that late ERP components recorded over the central brain may represent good electrophysiological correlates of the subjective sense of presence.

The association between personality and individual tendency for adopting and optimally interfacing with new technologies has often been proposed in the literature. However, only few published studies report experimental data. This study aims to provide evidence on the association between several individual variables and usability experience in modern immersive visual technologies. Our results are inconclusive regarding a relationship between participants' personality and experienced sense of presence with perceived usability. The severity of the simulator sickness symptoms during the virtual experience is showed to be negatively associated with reported system usability. However, due to the small sample size and the number of variables examined, our results have only an explorative value. Qualitative analyses show that, despite positive attitude towards the use of VR for training, the ergonomic limitations of the VR headset and the suboptimal realism of the simulated scene were reported by the participants.

Many studies have attempted to understand which individual differences may be related to the symptoms of discomfort during the virtual experience (simulator sickness) and the generally considered positive sense of being inside the simulated scene (sense of presence). Nevertheless, due to the quick technological advancement in the field of virtual reality, most of these studies are now outdated. Advanced technology for virtual reality is commonly mediated by head-mounted displays (HMDs), which aim to increase the sense of the presence of the user, remove stimuli from the external environment, and provide high definition, photo-realistic, three-dimensional images. Our results showed that motion sickness susceptibility and simulator sickness are related and neuroticism may be associated and predict simulator sickness. Furthermore, the results showed that people who are more used to playing video-games are less susceptible to simulator sickness; female participants reported more simulator sickness compared to males (but only for nausea-related symptoms). Female participants also experienced a higher sense of presence compared to males. We suggests that published findings on simulator sickness and the sense of presence in virtual reality environments need to be replicated with the use of modern HMDs.

The fast-phased adoption of modern immersive visual technologies in many fields calls for an assessment of potential costs and benefits from the point of view of human health. Humans often reported feelings of discomfort in the experience of virtual reality (VR), however, it is still not known what may promote this uncomfortable symptomatology. In the framework of research on human-computer interaction, part of the discomfort derived from the use of immersive visual technologies has been attribute to technological factors. Among the most cited technological limitations is the vergence-accommodation conflict that human eyes are experiencing in displays delivering 3D images, and that have been connected to feelings of discomfort and tiredness. In the present investigation we attempt to briefly review the most important pieces of evidence presented in the literature, on the possible technological limitation of immersive visual technologies and its possible effects on human health and the way those effects were analyzed, and the ill symptomologies were assessed. Furthermore, possible solutions for reducing negative effects of the use of 3D media were shortly analyzed, and new perspective on the issue reviewed. Finally, we will attempt to assess the way immersive visual technology can be used in the medical field with the aim to improve human health.

Some lines of evidence have shown that sensory input, especially related to vestibular and somatosensory stimulation, may reduce the symptoms related to simulator sickness and increase the sense of presence in VR. The present study aims at understanding how mechanical vibration and auditory stimulation can be used to improve user experience in the context of VR mediated by head-mounted displays. Four different groups comprising a total of 80 participants were tested under different conditions of sensory input (visual and vibration, visual-auditory, combined visual-auditory and vibratory, and visual only), during a VR roller-coaster experience. No significant differences in simulator sickness were found between the groups exposed to seat vibration and/or audio. However, sense of presence showed to be increased when vibratory stimuli were included. Post-hoc analyses showed that female users but not male ones, experienced an increase of sense of presence when vibratory stimulation was used. Practitioner summary: The study showed that including sound or vibration stimulation during VR experience does not reduce simulator sickness. However, sense of presence is promoted by vibratory stimulation. Post-hoc analyses showed that female users experienced an increase of sense of presence by vibratory stimulation, but not male ones.

This study investigates how Human Factors (HF) is applied when designing and developing Immersive Visual Technologies (IVT), including Augmented Reality, Mixed Reality, and Virtual Reality. We interviewed fourteen people working at different organizations, that develop IVT applications in the Nordic region. We used thematic analysis to derive themes from the interviews. The results showed an insufficient knowledge and application of HF in IVT development, due to the lack of awareness of both scope and significance of HF, resource allocation strategy, market inertia, stakeholder's involvement, standardization of HF application and IVT uses, and technology maturity. This situation could be improved by allocating experts, adjusting organizational strategy to balance resource allocation, training developers and user organizations to raise awareness and to encourage co-creative design and knowledge sharing, create a sense of ownership amongst stakeholders, and ensure the usefulness of the technology to the user's work.

In this paper, we investigate how managers enhance sense-making during technological changes in safety-critical industries. Implementation of new technologies is not a linear and predictable process. Technologies evolve faster than we can fully prepare for. This means that new challenges are introduced into the sociotechnical system in which the technology is embedded, leading to shifts in paradigms, interpretation, and business practices. These new technology-induced changes have been less the focus of previous work on sense-making compared to the more traditional paradigms and core practices. In this paper, we focus on the managerial role in these changes. We examine the relevant literature on technological change implementation and organizational sense-making in the past three years and use thematic analysis to capture the main themes plausible within the scope of the paper. Several themes and sub-themes are derived and presented. The resulting themes shed light on what the managers need to be aware of and do to support and enhance the sense-making process during technological changes, which leads to empowerment of the employees to do their own sense-making and maintain reliable operations.

The published literature has produced several definitions for the sense of presence in a simulated environment, as well as various methods for measuring it. The variety of conceptualizations makes it difficult for researchers to interpret, compare, and evaluate the presence ratings obtained from individual studies. Presence has been measured by employing questionnaires, physiological indices, behavioral feedbacks, and interviews. A systematic literature review was conducted to provide insight into the definitions and measurements of presence in studies from 2002 to 2019, with a focus on questionnaires and physiological measures. The review showed that scholars had introduced various definitions of presence that often originate from different theoretical standpoints and that this has produced a multitude of different questionnaires that aim to measure presence. At the same time, physiological studies that investigate the physiological correlates of the sense of presence have often shown ambiguous results or have not been replicated. Most of the scholars have preferred the use of questionnaires, with Witmer and Singer's Presence Questionnaire being the most prevalent. Among the physiological measures, electroencephalography was the most frequently used. The conclusions of the present review aim to stimulate future structured efforts to standardize the use of the construct of presence, as well as inspire the replication of the findings reported in the published literature.

Virtual reality (VR) offers novel ways to develop skills and learning. This technology can be used to enhance the way we educate and train professionals by possibly being more effective, cost-efficient, and reducing training-related risks. However, the potential benefits from virtual training assume that the trained skills can be transferred to the real world. Nevertheless, in the current published scientific literature, there is limited empirical evidence that links VR use to better learning. The present investigation aimed to explore the use of VR as a tool for training procedural skills and compare this modality with traditional instruction methods. To investigate skill development using the two forms of training, participants were randomly divided into two groups. The first group received training through an instructional video, while the second group trained in VR. After the training session, the participants performed the trained task in a real setting, and task performance was measured. Subsequently, the user's experienced sense of presence and simulator sickness (SS) was measured with self-report questionnaires. There were no significant differences between groups for any of the performance measures. There was no gender effect on performance. Importantly, the results of the present study indicate that a high sense of presence during the VR simulation might contribute to increased skill learning. These findings can be used as a starting point that could be of value when further exploring VR as a tool for skill development.

Modern head-mounted displays (HMDs) are a promising technology. Thanks to their affordable cost and versatility, HMDs are gaining attention from different sectors. However, the experience reported by the users of these technologies is sometimes negative. A number of people, when using an HMD, complain of various types of physical discomfort as well as symptoms like headache, disorientation, and nausea. These symptoms, developed during or after exposure to virtual environments, are commonly referred to with the term simulator sickness. Some scientific studies have shown that women are commonly more sensitive to simulator sickness. However, a gender imbalance in the susceptibility to simulator sickness has not been widely studied in the context of modern HMDs, and the studies that have been done have reported heterogeneous findings. The present systematic review aims to gather the pieces of evidence that support and oppose a gender difference in the susceptibility of simulator sickness in the framework of modern HMDs. We also aim to individuate other gender differences in the experience of the use of these technologies to establish whether there is sufficient evidence to support a gender discrepancy in the user experience.

The aim of this research was to explore trainees' perceptions and evaluation of Virtual Reality fire extinguisher training. Virtual Reality technology is being adopted by many industries for various purposes including safety training for safety critical industries. The future direction of Virtual Reality training requires an understanding of trainees' evaluation of it; this fact motivated this research. Data were collected from 85 participants using a questionnaire after the training. Observation notes were taken to provide a better understanding of the context. Qualitative research with a thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. The results of this analysis revealed that the most salient themes reflect on issues surrounding the realism of the Virtual Reality simulation, namely different emotional and bodily experiences during the training, while the benefits of the training (health, safety, environmental advantages, efficiency and convenience, repeatability and variety of scenarios) make it a good supplement. Nevertheless, improved realism is needed to make it more effective and enhance transfer and acceptance. This study encourages the consideration of important matters (such as realism and emotions) when using Virtual Reality for fire training. It also describes the positive perceptions of this type of training (repeatability of training, safety and environmental concerns).

The qualitative analysis steps in Human Reliability Analysis (HRA) have received little attention in the HRA methods and in the general literature on HRA. The purpose of this paper is to investigate which quality criteria for qualitative research exist and if they can be useful as quality criteria in HRA. To find the criteria for qualitative research, a literature review was performed that covered a broad range of criteria for qualitative research. A thematic analysis was then used to sort and present the different criteria found in different papers and book chapters. Quality criteria for qualitative research were found in the following steps: presenting the background of the study, selecting and presenting a sample, qualitative data collection, qualitative data analysis, credibility/reliability checks, reflexivity and identification of possible bias, and evaluation of ethics considerations. It is discussed how these qualitative criteria could improve HRA and be guidelines for analysts and reviewers of HRAs.

This paper discusses the challenges with collecting positivistic empirical data (objective, observable, reliable, replicable, experimental, and true) in human reliability analysis (HRA), and illustrates it by presenting the difficulties in collecting empirical data on the performance-shaping factor (PSF) complexity. The PSF complexity was chosen to illustrate the difficulties with empirically collecting data because it is included in many HRA guidelines and it has been discussed as an important PSF to understand error rates in large accident scenarios. This paper discusses the challenges with collecting empirical data from a pure positivistic paradigm with experiments, as well as from literature reviews and data from event reports, training, and operations. The paper concludes that because of all the challenges with the positivistic empirical data collections methods in HRA, we should discuss whether experts' judgements could be a better approach to obtain HRA data and error rates. In a postpositivistic view, qualitative data or experts' judgments could also be looked at as empirical data if the data were collected in a systematic and transparent way.

Modern head-mounted displays (HMDs) are a promising technology. Thanks to their affordable cost and versatility, HMDs are gaining attention from different sectors. However, the experience reported by the users of these technologies is sometimes negative. A number of people, when using an HMD, complain of various types of physical discomfort as well as symptoms like headache, disorientation, and nausea. These symptoms, developed during or after exposure to virtual environments, are commonly referred to with the term simulator sickness. Some scientific studies have shown that women are commonly more sensitive to simulator sickness. However, a gender imbalance in the susceptibility to simulator sickness has not been widely studied in the context of modern HMDs, and the studies that have been done have reported heterogeneous findings. The present systematic review aims to gather the pieces of evidence that support and oppose a gender difference in the susceptibility of simulator sickness in the framework of modern HMDs. We also aim to individuate other gender differences in the experience of the use of these technologies to establish whether there is sufficient evidence to support a gender discrepancy in the user experience.

In the development of the Petro-HRA method [5], a human reliability analysis (HRA) developed for the petroleum industry, a number of factors believed to effect human performance were reviewed and considered for inclusion in the method's performance shaping factor (PSF) taxonomy. The method was created for prospective risk analysis of post-initiator events and it was created as a method that focused on including the most important PSFs, rather than attempting to include all aspects of human performance. This paper assess whether fatigue should be among the PSFs included. This article presents: (1) how fatigue is included in current human reliability methods; (2) fatigue and its underlying aspects; (3) how these aspects affect performance and; (4) the consideration of including fatigue as a PSF in Petro-HRA. Four possible PSFs based on the causes of are suggested: Sleep deprivation, Shift-length, Non-day shift, and Prolonged task performance. However, due to the relative low impacts of the PSFs and the Petro-HRA's focus on only the strongest PSFs, the final method did not include any of the suggested fatigue PSFs.

With the ultimate purpose of assessing risk within augmented reality-equipped socio-technical systems, in our previous work, we systematically organized and extended state-of-the-art taxonomies of human failures to include the failures related to the extended capabilities enabled by AR technologies. The result of our organization and extension was presented in form of a feature diagram. Current state-of-the-art taxonomies of faults leading to human failures do not consider augmented reality effects and the new types of faults leading to human failures. Thus, in this paper, we develop our previous work further and review state-of-the-art taxonomies of faults leading to human failures in order to: 1) organize them systematically, and 2) include the new faults, which might be due to AR. Coherently with what done previously, we use a feature diagram to represent the commonalities and variabilities of the different taxonomies and we introduce new features to represent the new AR-caused faults. Finally, an AR-equipped socio-technical system is presented and used to discuss about the usefulness of our taxonomy.