Disgust is a primary emotion implicated in the onset and maintenance of contamination-related obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms. Research suggests that disgust comprises two distinct facets: disgust propensity (DP, the tendency to experience disgust across various situations) and disgust sensitivity (DS, the intensity of disgust and its negative interpretation). Although both DP and DS have been linked to contamination-related OC symptoms, most studies have examined them separately and/or relied solely on self-reported information. The present study investigated whether DP and DS uniquely predict in-vivo disgust ratings and discrete behavior. Nonclinical undergraduate students (N = 115) completed self-report measures and a contamination-based behavioral approach task (BAT). The major result revealed that DP-but not DS-significantly predicted both in-vivo disgust and behavioral approach. As such, DP may be the more relevant disgust construct in predicting both subjective and behavioral responses to contamination stimuli. A second result was that self-reported contamination-related OC symptoms significantly predicted behavioral approach but not in-vivo disgust ratings. Our study aimed to better understand the relationship between disgust facets and contamination-related OC symptoms, to assist in the development of more targeted approaches to understanding and treating contamination-related OC symptoms.

The revised Penn Inventory of Scrupulosity (PIOS-R) is widely used. Support for its factor structure is mixed across either a two-factor or a bifactor model. Normed on a primarily Christian sample, researchers use the PIOSR to examine scrupulosity across religious groups. This study's primary aims were to clarify the PIOS-R's factor structure in a religiously diverse sample and determine whether the PIOS-R shows measurement invariance across religious groups. A secondary aim was to evaluate psychometric properties. U.S. participants (N = 718) who self-reported as Christian, Jewish, or Muslim were recruited using MTurk. Multiple group CFA indicated that a two-factor solution comprised of Fear of God (FOG) and Fear of Sin (FOS) provided the best-fitting model. Configural, metric, and scalar invariance held across religious groups. Internal consistency was strong for the full scale (omega t = .96) and both FOS (omega t = .95) and FOG (omega t = .92) subscales. The PIOS-R was more strongly correlated with DOCS Scrupulosity (r = .71) than with DASS-21 Depression (r = .58), DASS-21 Anxiety (r = .66), or a measure of religiosity (SCSRFQ; r = .36), supporting relative discriminant validity. The PIOS-R appears appropriate for assessing scrupulosity within and among these religious groups.

Evidence suggests that racial discrimination plays a role in the development of posttraumatic stress disorder, but may also produce a set of symptoms that, while similar to posttraumatic stress disorder, has important distinctions from currently defined diagnoses. The Trauma Symptoms of Discrimination Scale (TSDS) was developed to evaluate the presence of trauma-related anxiety and avoidance symptoms that occur after experiencing discriminatory distress. Development and validation of symptom measures following discrimination are critical steps for understanding and measuring this construct empirically. Whereas initial validation of the TSDS provided evidence of good psychometric properties (e.g., internal consistency, convergent validity), this study aimed to confirm the factorial validity of the TSDS in a large sample of racial and/or ethnic minoritized students. A sample (N = 711) of undergraduate students at a large midwestern university completed the TSDS and additional self-report measures through an online platform. Confirmatory factor analysis suggested middling-to-poor fit for the original four-factor solution, resulting in subsequent exploratory factor analysis. However, factor retention methods (i.e., parallel analyses, scree plot inspection) failed to converge regarding the identification of an alternate factor structure. Thus, models ranging from one to five factors were conducted for descriptive purposes. Convergent validity was only supported for the TSDS total score. This study extends the existing literature by attempting to replicate the factor structure of the TSDS in a large sample of racial and/or ethnic minoritized students. These results indicate that its proposed factor structure lacks stability in the current configuration and warrants further exploration.

Extant research suggests that LGBTQ+ individuals may be especially susceptible to experiencing obsessivecompulsive (OC) symptoms within the unacceptable thoughts symptom dimension. The current study sought to replicate and extend these findings by examining whether LGBTQ+ individuals report greater unacceptable thoughts and scrupulosity symptoms (religious- and/or moral-based symptoms) than do non-LGBTQ+ individuals. To further understand these experiences among LGBTQ+ individuals, we also examined the relations among OC symptoms and factors we hypothesized to be uniquely relevant: religiosity, fear of self, and family acceptance of LGBTQ+ identity. MTurk participants completed a battery of questionnaires. Results indicated that LGBTQ+ participants reported significantly higher scrupulosity and unacceptable thoughts symptoms than did non-LGBTQ+ participants. Notably, LGBTQ+ participants also reported significantly higher scores on other OC symptom dimensions than did non-LGBTQ+ participants. LGBTQ+ identity was significantly related to scrupulosity symptoms when controlling for religiosity and fear of self. In the LGBTQ+ sample, family acceptance of LGBTQ+ identity moderated an association between religiosity and scrupulosity symptoms. These results suggest that identity, family acceptance, and religiosity are meaningfully associated with OC symptoms in LGBTQ+ individuals. This line of research remains relatively nascent but should be a focus of efforts to better understand and eventually mitigate OC symptoms in the LGBTQ+ community.

The issue of race within the context of psychological assessment is important, but often overlooked. Many self-report measures of psychopathology have been developed and validated using primarily White samples. Research regarding the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) and race has produced mixed results, which in turn may present challenges when comparing scores across racial groups. The current article sought to investigate the measurement invariance of the PSWQ and PSWQ-A (an abbreviated version) across four racial groups (White, Black, Asian, and Hispanic) in a sample of 2,489 undergraduate students. Confirmatory factor analysis of a one-factor structure illustrated poor fit across all racial groups for the full-length PSWQ. Two-factor and one-factor with method effects models of the full-length PSWQ each improved on the previous model fit, although the one-factor method effects model was limited by nonsalient factor loadings. Additionally, a separate confirmatory factor analysis indicated good fit for the PSWQ-A. Further analysis of the PSWQ-A suggested measurement invariance across all racial groups, as well as configural, metric, and scalar invariance. These findings advance the literature on the relationship between worry and race, suggesting that direct comparisons on the PSWQ-A between racial groups is appropriate.

The Sentence Task (Rachman et al., 1996) has respondents write "I hope ___ is in a car accident," filling the blank with a loved one. Used in many laboratory-based studies of Thought-Action Fusion (TAF), it is unclear whether the induced distress is TAF-specific. Four studies (total N = 405 undergraduates) examined the extent to which Task-induced anxiety is empirically correlated with conceptually relevant self-report measures. We also explored using the Task in an online format; two studies were in-person, two were online. First, completion of the Task resulted in significant (ps < .001) increase in anxiety in all four studies (ds ranged from 0.52 to 0.86). However, in three of the four studies, there was no significant correlation (ps > .05) between the magnitude of pre-to post-Task anxiety change and baseline measures (Thought-Action Fusion Scale, Dimensional Obsessive-Compulsive Scale). This suggests that the Task-induced anxiety may not be specific to TAF. Second, there were no significant mean-level differences for any variables whether assessed in-person vs. online. However, Task refusal was significantly higher for online (21.2%, 24.1%) vs. in-person (5.4%, 6.0%) administrations. Findings contribute to a better understanding of the Task and offer mixed support for use in an online format.

Research has established that individuals who belong to different religious affiliations may differ on levels of thought-action fusion (TAF), a cognitive bias heavily implicated in obsessive-compulsive symptoms. However, research has relied on correlational methods and comparisons primarily have been between broad religious groups and not targeted aspects of religious beliefs or teachings. In our study, 99 Protestant undergraduates were randomly assigned to one of two priming conditions: reading and writing about a forgiving or a punishing God. Participants then completed a behavioral TAF task that induces an obsession-like thought, after which in vivo responses were measured. Comparisons between the forgiving God (FG) and punishing God (PG) conditions revealed that those in the PG condition were higher on in vivo anxiety and urge to neutralize. However, there were no differences on in vivo moral wrongness ratings or on neutralizing behavior. Findings provided mixed support for the salience of a punishing God concept as an influence on elevated TAF in Protestant individuals. The study was limited by a sample with a strong baseline view of God as forgiving, which likely limited the effectiveness of the God concept prime. Other limitations and observations are addressed to inform the methodology of future research.

Mindfulness-based interventions have many applications, including as a productive alternative to repetitive thoughts. Rumination includes two factors: brooding (moody, maladaptive thinking) and reflection (adaptive attempt to overcome problems). Literature suggests mindfulness interventions reduce ruminative thoughts, but technique effectiveness requires examination. Our study assessed whether mindfulness techniques differ with respect to distress reduction in the context of brooding versus reflective styles. Students (N = 228) completed questionnaires, negative mood manipulation, and a one-session mindfulness training that required either focused attention or open monitoring. Induced distress was reduced in both conditions, but brooding moderated the relationship between condition and distress reduction. Reflection was not a moderator. The findings support the idea that even a modest dose of mindfulness exercise aids in reducing induced negative emotions. Focused mindfulness may be more beneficial for reducing distress in individuals who report high levels of brooding, whereas either technique may reduce distress in individuals who reflect.

This report details the course of psychotherapy methods and outcomes for a 57-year-old White man who sought services for hoarding disorder (HD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Over 14 months, he completed 54 treatment sessions that spanned two distinct treatment approaches. Given his presentation and the conceptualized relations among his symptoms, therapy was sequenced to address PTSD symptoms prior to undergoing cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT) for HD. The implications of this decision were key to his treatment progress and outcome, and they are reviewed in detail. Together, treatment consisted of psycho-education, cognitive restructuring, and a combination of in-clinic and home-based exposures. Results were positive, with the client experiencing a decrease in self-reported HD and PTSD symptoms, reduction in home clutter and decreased distress related to discarding, and increased feelings of self-efficacy. In light of limited data addressing treatment for individuals with HD who have a salient trauma history, the major aim of this report is to detail how each step of the client’s treatment was approached, what factors and data were considered for reaching specific decision points, and how the sequencing of treatment is believed to have contributed to the positive outcome achieved.

This study aimed to investigate the specificity of inferential confusion and obsessive beliefs to symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The construct of inferential confusion is grounded in an Inference-Based Approach (IBA) to the study of OCD, which maintains that dysfunctional reasoning plays a central role in its development, whereas other cognitive models have emphasized the role of obsessive beliefs in the escalation of intrusive thoughts into obsessions. To investigate the role of inferential confusion and obsessive beliefs, a group of individuals diagnosed with OCD (N = 296) completed the Inferential Confusion Questionnaire (ICQ-EV) and the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ-44). As expected, inferential confusion and obsessive beliefs uniquely predicted OCD symptoms. Specifically, importance and control of thoughts was particularly relevant to obsessions, perfectionism and certainty to precision, and just right and inferential confusion to indecision and rumination. Beliefs about responsibility and threat did not uniquely predict any symptoms of OCD. Results are discussed in terms of future avenues for research, and how an investigation of cognitive constructs that are not explicitly represented in the OBQ-44 may help to further inform and refine cognitive models of OCD.

Background and objectives: Dysfunctional interpretations of intrusive thoughts are implicated in the etiology and maintenance of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD). Cognitive Bias Modification training for interpretations (CBM-I) has successfully modified dysfunctional interpretations in the context of several disorders, including OCD. However, research regarding CBM-I's impact on symptom reduction and behavior is mixed, which limits its clinical application. Further, support for the specific efficacy of CBM-I in individuals with contamination concerns is limited. The current study aimed to modify dysfunctional interpretations in individuals with contamination concerns, and examine the effect of the modification on both interpretation bias and performance on a behavioral approach task (BAT). Methods: Participants (N = 74) completed a word-sentence association task by indicating whether a threatening or benign word was related to an ambiguous scenario. The active condition received feedback designed to reduce maladaptive interpretations; the control condition received random feedback. Results: Findings revealed that the active but not the control condition showed a significant decrease in interpretation bias for threat cues. Analyses of behavioral effects indicated that when ceiling effects were accounted for, the active condition completed more BAT steps than the control condition (p = 0.06; d = 0.45). Limitations: The current study is preliminary and requires replication with a clinical sample. Conclusions: Completion of the CBM-I was beneficial for reducing dysfunctional interpretations relevant to naturally-occurring contamination concerns and, importantly, this reduction may help those individuals approach feared situations.

A 44-item version of the Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ-44) put forward by the Obsessive Compulsive Cognitions Working Group remains the most widely used version of the OBQ, despite research casting doubt on its factorial validity and the existence of a short form (i.e., OBQ-20). In a large sample of undergraduate students (n = 1,210), a bifactor model of the OBQ-20, consisting of a general factor and four specific factors (threat, responsibility, importance/control of thoughts, perfectionism/certainty), was supported as the best-fitting model. None of the examined OBQ-44 models provided adequate fit. The bifactor model of the OBQ-20 was retained in two independent samples (n = 1,342 community adults, n = 319 undergraduate students). The incremental validity of the specific factors of the OBQ-20 beyond the general factor was evidenced across multiple criterion indices, including obsessive-compulsive symptom measures and reactions to a thought-induction task. Results further support use of the OBQ-20.

Intolerance of uncertainty (IU)—the tendency to avoid ambiguous situations and view oneself as unable to cope with uncertainty—is a core cognitive vulnerability for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). However, no published data address whether IU causes OCD-related phenomena, as experimental research on IU primarily is conducted in the context of generalized anxiety disorder. The studies herein highlight the importance of replication in experimental psychopathology research and may inform future studies that seek to experimentally manipulate cognitive vulnerabilities such as IU or assess compulsions through behavioral measures. In the current studies, undergraduates (Study 1n = 60; Study 2n = 83; Study 3n = 95) completed a false-feedback manipulation intended to either increase or decrease IU beliefs, followed by a catastrophizing worry interview (Study 1) or checking task (Studies 2 and 3). Participants in the high versus low IU condition evidenced significantly more steps during the worry interview and higher state distress, but did not evidence either significant alterations in checking behavior or consistent alterations in perception of threat. Examination of the relationship between IU and OCD can inform the use of treatment strategies that directly target IU. Limitations and key future directions are discussed.

The Faceted Inventory of the Five-Factor Model (FI-FFM) is a comprehensive hierarchical measure of personality. The FI-FFM was created across five phases of scale development. It includes five facets apiece for neuroticism, extraversion, and conscientiousness; four facets within agreeableness; and three facets for openness. We present reliability and validity data obtained from three samples. The FI-FFM scales are internally consistent and highly stable over 2 weeks (retest rs ranged from .64 to .82, median r = .77). They show strong convergent and discriminant validity vis-à-vis the NEO, the Big Five Inventory, and the Personality Inventory for DSM-5. Moreover, self-ratings on the scales show moderate to strong agreement with corresponding ratings made by informants ( rs ranged from .26 to .66, median r = .42). Finally, in joint analyses with the NEO Personality Inventory–3, the FI-FFM neuroticism facet scales display significant incremental validity in predicting indicators of internalizing psychopathology.

The study of diversity issues within psychopathology is challenging, yet essential. Regarding Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), research has demonstrated elevations in symptom endorsement across specific racial and ethnic groups. However, these differences do not consistently reflect increased distress or impairment. A limitation is that the majority of research in this area compares only Black and White participants; the present study sought to extend this literature by examining a large, broadly diverse student sample consisting of 205 Asian, 669 Black, 318 Hispanic, and 1247 White participants. We targeted three OCD symptom questionnaires and a measure of OC beliefs; we also examined the associations among OCD symptoms, OC beliefs, and general distress. Results were that both Asian and Black participants scored significantly higher than White participants on most OCD-relevant measures; however, Asian participants scored significantly higher than Black participants on several measures. In contrast with some prior research, OCD symptoms correlated moderately positively with general distress across all groups studied. These findings highlight the limitation of comparing only Black and White individuals, and underscore the importance of broad inclusion in such research.

ObjectivePrevious research in a nonclinical sample has suggested that schizotypal, dissociative, and imaginative processes may play a role in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms (Aardema & Wu, ). The present study aims to extend these findings in a clinical sample.MethodN = 75 adults (mean age = 37.99; 61.3% female), meeting the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision, diagnostic criteria for OCD completed a battery of self-report questionnaires measuring schizotypal, dissociative, and imaginative processes.ResultsHierarchical regression analyses revealed inferential confusion and dissociation to be the strongest predictors of OCD symptoms, replicating and extending the findings by Aardema and Wu ().ConclusionResults support the notion that inferential confusion and dissociation are important variables to consider in understanding symptoms of OCD independently from obsessive beliefs and negative mood states.

At a general level of abstraction, thought–action fusion (TAF) concerns the idea that thoughts have a tangible impact on reality or one's sense of morality. Borne of the obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) literature, TAF shows empirical relations with symptoms of other psychological disorders, suggesting it is not confined to OCD and may be of broader importance. This study addressed three issues. First, it examined the structure of the thought–action fusion scale (TAFS) in clinical and nonclinical samples. A 3-factor solution consisting of likelihood-others, likelihood-self, and moral was supported in both samples. Second, this study examined the range of TAF content assessed by the 44-item Obsessive Beliefs Questionnaire (OBQ). Regressions predicting OCD symptoms indicated that TAFS Moral content was accounted for by the OBQ; conversely, TAFS Likelihood-self and TAFS Likelihood-others accounted for significant additional variance. Third, this study examined the specificity of TAF to OCD symptoms versus symptoms of other disorders. TAFS Moral and TAFS Likelihood-others more strongly correlated with OCD symptoms compared to other symptoms; conversely, TAFS Likelihood-self did not demonstrate such specificity. These findings are discussed in terms of advancing our understanding of the construct of TAF and the instruments available for assessing it in both clinical and research contexts.

Given the equivocal state of the literature as to the symptom-level specificity of the cognitive variable labeled negative problem orientation (NPO), we targeted NPO-symptom relations. A clinical sample (N = 132) of adults diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, mood disorder, or obsessive-compulsive disorder completed self-reports of NPO and symptom types (worry, depression, obsessive-compulsive, panic, and social anxiety). Symptom-level specificity was examined using a combination of zero-order and regression analyses that controlled for the other assessed symptoms. Results were that NPO shared small to moderate correlations with the symptoms. Regression results indicated that NPO only shared unique associations with worry, depression, and social anxiety. In the analyses, NPO clustered particularly strongly with worry. The present results provide support for conceptualizing NPO as a cognitive variable common to emotional disorders, but not as related equivalently to all disorders within this category.

Although it is understood that assessment tools require evaluation using diverse samples, such evaluations are relatively rare. There are obstacles to such work, but it remains important to pursue psychometric data in broad samples. As such, we evaluated measurement invariance and population heterogeneity of two versions of a widely used measure in the anxiety literature--the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale (IUS)--among self-identifying White (N = 1,185) and Black (N = 301) students. Data from multiple-groups confirmatory factor analysis supported the equivalence of the equal form and factor loadings of both IUS versions in White and Black respondents. However, specific IUS items functioned differently in the two groups, with more IUS items appearing biased in the full-length relative to the short-form version. Correlations between IUS factors and worry were equivalent among White and Black respondents. We discuss the implications of these results for future research.