Diverse ginseng species exhibit highly similar morphological features, leading to potential concerns of adulteration. Difference in chemical composition, combined with sensory qualities, could be key to distinguishing between ginseng species and enabling their quality control. However, comprehensive metabolomic comparisons linking chemical profiles to sensory traits remain limited. This study aimed to differentiate Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) using multi-platform metabolomics approach combined with multivariate statistics by analyzing different tissue parts (whole, body, and root). Korean ginseng was overall enriched in sucrose, citric acid, acetic acid, β-panasinsene, and ginsenoside Ra2, whereas American ginseng contained higher succinic acid, β-farnesene, quinquenoside R1. Electronic tongue profiling further distinguished taste attributes, with Korean ginseng showing stronger sweetness and bitterness and American ginseng exhibiting higher sourness. These integrated findings identified discriminant markers and demonstrated the potential of integrated metabolomics and sensory analysis for ginseng authentication and quality assessment.

Soluble epoxide hydrolase (sEH) is a pivotal therapeutic target for inflammation management, as it regulates the hydrolysis of anti-inflammatory epoxy fatty acids (EpFAs). In this study, we investigated the sEH inhibitory potential of Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F.A. Barkley heartwood. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the ethanol extract identified the ethyl acetate-soluble fraction as the most active fraction ( 60

Background: Stable production of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) is highly dependent on specific climatic conditions. Recently, ginseng yield and quality have been negatively affected by climate changes, particularly by global warming. Therefore, developing new varieties with enhanced tolerance to high-temperature stress is essential for coping with elevated temperatures.BRMethods and Results: To increase the production stability and enhance the yields of Korean ginseng, a high-temperature stress tolerant elite line with a high yield was collected from a farm field in Pocheon, and a new variety, 'Jinwon,' was developed using a pure-line selection method. 'Jinwon,' which has a green leaf and red berry, exhibits red leaves at senescence and a convex leaflet shape in cross section. 'Jinwon' sprouted two days earlier than 'Chunpoong,' and its flowered and fruit-ripening period occurred three days earlier. 'Jinwon' has approximately 28% higher 4-year-old root yields (576 ㎏/10a) than that of 'Chunpoong' (519 ㎏/10a). The ginsenoside content in 'Jinwon' was 25.9 ㎎/g, which was higher than that of 'Chunpoong' (10.9 ㎎/g).BRConclusions: 'Jinwon' exhibited strong resistance to high temperatures and Alternaria blight, with higher yields and better functional properties than 'Chunpoong'. As a result, 'Jinwon' was registered as a variety (grant number 7461) with the Korea Seed and Varieties Service in 2019.

Panax ginseng Meyer grows in east Russia and Asia. There is a high demand for this crop due to its medicinal properties. However, its low reproductive efficiency has been a hindrance to the crop’s widespread use. This study aims to establish an efficient regeneration and acclimatization system for the crop. The type of basal media and strength were evaluated for their effects on somatic embryogenesis, germination, and regeneration. The highest rate of somatic embryogenesis was achieved for the basal media MS, N6, and GD, with the optimal nitrogen content (≥35 mM) and NH4+/NO3− ratio (1:2 or 1:4). The full-strength MS medium was the best one for somatic embryo induction. However, the diluted MS medium had a more positive effect on embryo maturation. Additionally, the basal media affected shooting, rooting, and plantlet formation. The germination medium containing 1/2 MS facilitated good shoot development; however, the medium with 1/2 SH yielded outstanding root development. In vitro-grown roots were successfully transferred to soil, and they exhibited a high survival rate (86.3%). Finally, the ISSR marker analysis demonstrated that the regenerated plants were not different from the control. The obtained results provide valuable information for a more efficient micropropagation of various P. ginseng cultivars.

Background: This study aimed to provide basic data for seed production and management system to the farmers via the degree of root yield reduction, based on continuous ginseng seed harvesting.Methods and Results: Yunpoong and Gumpoong ginseng varieties were selected. The planting density was set to 70 plants in 7 rows and 10 column in a 1.8 m × 0.9 m plot. The number of seed harvesting was 1 to 4 times from 3-year-old while growing a 6-year-old. Twelve treatments were performed according to the annual number of seed harvest. For both ginseng varieties, root yield was the highest when treated without seed harvesting and it, decreased as the number of harvested seed increased. The rate of yield loss in ginseng was on average 24.8%, 36.4%, 45.0%, and 56.3% in the seeds harvested for 1, 2, 3, and 4 times, respectively, compared with non-harvesting. Contrastingly, no notable difference was observed between the number of harvested seeds and ginsenosides content in white and red ginseng.Conclusions: Ginseng farmers can manage seed harvesting by evaluating root yield with the number of seeds harvests, Additionally, root loss can be effectively managed with continuous seed harvests while ensuring high quality.

Background: Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer is a valuable crop in Asia especially in Korea and China. However, it takes over 3 years for ginseng to produce seeds due to its lengthy juvenile period. This hinders the industry development and limits potential propagation of new cultivars. Anther cultures could provide homozygous plants within a year, however, P. ginseng embryogenesis using alternative cultures have not been reported.Methods and Results: Anthers were inoculated in the callus induction media supplemented with various hormones including auxin and cytokinin. Callus induction occurred in all media, ranging from 62.9% to 83.8%, except for the medium without no hormone. The embryo formation rate was low (0.4% - 4.2%). The highest embryo formation was observed in the medium supplemented with 1.0㎎/ℓ of 2,4-D in isolation. Moreover, addition of gibberellic acid effectively aided in embryo germination. After culturring for 5 months, plantlets with taproot roots were transplanted into the soil and as a result high sprouting rate of approximately 80.0% was observed. The flow cytometry analysis revealed no difference in the ploidy level was found between the anther culture-derived and control plants.Conclusions: Embryogenesis and plant regeneration of P. ginseng could be contributed by the anther culture to produce homozygous individuals.

Background: Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) is recognized for its medicinal properties. Because ginseng is cultivated for 4 – 6 years in one place, the growing environment can affect ginseng growth. Specifically, root growth can be altered by plant hormones, which in turn, affects crop yields. Among plant hormones, cytokinin is known to increase secondary growth by promoting cambium cell division. In addition, ethylene and propiconazole can regulate root development. In this study, the effects and interactions of cytokinin, ethylene, and propiconazole on four-year-old ginseng plants were analyzed.BRMethods and Results: Ginseng plants were treated with each hormone every two weeks. Cytokinin (6-benzylaminopurine, 500 μM) was applied to the soil, and 100 nM of propiconazole or 100 μM of ethylene was applied in combination with cytokinin. Root width and weight, and ginsenoside content of each plant were the highest when cytokinin and propiconazole were applied together. The highest number of buds was observed under cytokinin treatment. However, no significant differences were observed in shoot growth, except for stem width.BRConclusions: The greatest effect on root development was observed when cytokinin and propiconazole were applied together, and ginsenoside content increased following hormone treatment.

Panax ginseng Meyer is a valuable medicinal crop. However, the species' propagation is limited by its long reproductive cycle and low seed yield. The present study focused on P. ginseng plant regeneration via somatic embryogenesis and evaluated the genetic stability of regenerated plantlets. We assessed the effects of carbon source type and concentration on somatic embryo induction, maturation, and germination. Somatic embryogenesis was optimal in Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 5% sucrose; however, maturation peaked in 1/2 MS containing low concentrations of sucrose ranging from 1 to 2%. Germination and plant regeneration were optimal in germination medium supplemented with 2% sucrose based on high germination rates, efficient plantlet production, and balanced growth characteristics. Molecular marker analysis suggested that the genetic fidelity of the regenerated plants was comparable with that of the control. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis showed that in vitro-grown roots (IGRs) accumulated more ginsenoside than those of the control, but the ginsenoside content of 2 year old IGRs was similar to that of the controls after acclimatization. Our study provides valuable insights into the optimization of genetically stable micropropagation and could promote the distribution of superior P. ginseng cultivars with high product yields and quality.

Background: The qualitative characteristics of aerial parts, such as stem diameter or number of ginseng leaves, are highly correlated with the root yield. correlation between the qualitative characteristics of aerial parts and root yield are limited.Methods and Results: The materials used in this study were cultivated after collecting 219 germplasms from nine regions in Korea, and the growth characteristics of the aerial and underground parts were investigated. The qualitative charateristics of eight 8 aerial parts such as stem color, leaf shape, and shape in cross-section of a leaflet, were investigated and their correlation with root yield was analyzed. The characteristics that showed a significant positive correlation with root yield were the shape in the cross-section of the leaflet (r = 0.71, p < 0.01), degree of additional leaflets (r = 0.37, p < 0.05), and color of leaf at senescence (r = 0.60, p < 0.01). Contrastingly, leaf shape had a negative correlation (r = -0.42, p < 0.01). Among the qualitative characteristics of aerial parts high-yield germplasms weighing more than 55 g per individual, 13 lines (65%) had a convex shape on the cross-section of the leaf. Germplasms that exhibited red color in leaf at senescence generally showed a high root yield.Conclusions: High-yield varieties can be developed early through the correlation between root yield and qualitative characteristics of the aerial parts, this could also help farmers in harvesting high quality seeds.

Panax ginseng Meyer is an important medicinal crop; however, most ginseng farmers cultivate native species that are not genetically fixed. Although several cultivars have been developed in Korea, distribution to farmers remains insufficient given their low propagation characteristics. This study compared the efficiency of seed production and micropropagation via somatic embryogenesis. Seeds were collected from cultivars, and zygotic embryo-derived explants were inoculated and cultured in a series of media for micropropagation. Seed production and characteristics of commercial cultivars were evaluated. The number of seeds from a 4-year-old individual cultivar was 23.1–58.8, and seed characteristics varied with cultivars. The genotype had a notable effect on somatic embryogenesis and plant regeneration. The number of somatic embryos and shoots obtained from a single seed of cultivars was 71.3–100.2 and 50.7–61.3, respectively. The number of in vitro grown roots (IGRs) per a single seed was 37.1–41.1 in one year. IGRs were successfully acclimatized and sprouted normally in the field. Flow cytometry analysis suggested that micropropagated plants had no ploidy variations. The results demonstrated the utility of somatic embryogenesis in the in vitro micropropagation of P. ginseng cultivars. Our findings can enhance the distribution of cultivars among farmers in the future.

The present study examined the volatile profiles of Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng) and Panax quinquefolium (American ginseng) grown for different cultivation years by using HS-SPME/GC-MS and determined the key discriminant volatile compounds by chemometric analysis including principal component analysis (PCA), hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA), and partial least squares-discrimination analysis (PLS-DA). Fifty-six compounds, including forty terpenes, eight alcohols, one alkane, one ketone, and one furan, were identified in the ginseng roots. The chemometric results identified two major clusters of American ginseng and Korean ginseng cultivars with distinct volatile compositions. The volatile compounds in fresh white ginseng roots were affected by the species, but the influence of different cultivation ages was ambiguous. The major volatile components of ginseng roots are terpenes, including monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. In particular, panaginsene, ginsinsene, α-isocomene, and caryophyllene were predominant in Korean ginseng cultivars, whereas β-farnesene levels were higher in American ginseng. The difference in volatile patterns between Panax ginseng and Panax quinquefolium could be attributed to the composition of sesquiterpenes such as β-panaginsene, ginsinsene, caryophyllene, and β-farnesene.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer), due to its relatively longer cultivation time, is often exposed to environmental stresses such as heat, salt, and drought. Particularly, salt-stress-derived oxidative damages greatly affect photosynthetic efficiency and consequently cause reduction of growth, development, and yield of ginseng. Thus, efforts have been made to understand the salt-stress-induced changes at proteome levels; however, the overall understanding of possible salt-responsive proteins in ginseng is still limited because of their low-abundance. A growing body of evidence suggests that plants secrete various low-abundant proteins localized in the intra- and extracellular spaces during stress conditions, and those proteins may have a key role for salt tolerance. Therefore, here, we report the ginseng fluids proteome to identify the potential salt-responsive proteins. This approach led to the identification of 261 secreted fluid proteins, and functional categorization revealed that identified proteins were majorly associated with photosynthesis, protein synthesis, cell binding, and various metabolisms. Further validation using qRT-PCR analysis showed similar expression profiles of heat-shock protein 70, glycosyl hydrolase 17, and fructose-bisphosphate aldolase class-I with proteome results. Overall, ginseng fluid proteomic analysis successfully identified the potential salt-responsive proteins, which might be helpful for understanding of salt-tolerance mechanisms in ginseng.

In 2008, a new Panax ginseng (ginseng) cultivar, ‘Cheonmyeong’, was bred by pure-line selection for tolerance to physiological disorders using a genetic resource collected from the farm race field, Buyeo, Chungnam, Korea. In 2019, ‘Cheonmyeong’ was registered as a new breed by the Korea Seed and Varieties Service (grant number 7467) and accorded plant breeders’ rights. ‘Cheonmyeong’ has a yellowish orange pericarp, which has not been previously reported. ‘Cheonmyeong’ sprouted and flowered 2 days earlier than the control cultivar ‘Chunpoong’, and its fruit-ripening period occurred 3 days earlier. ‘Cheonmyeong’ had 1.5-fold more stems per plant than ‘Chunpoong’. ‘Cheonmyeong’ plants were characterized by a lower occurrence of rusty root disease, and had approximately 28% higher 4-year-old root yields (571.8 ± 99.7 kg∙10a -1 ) than those of the rusty root-tolerant ‘Chunpoong’ (444.1 ± 110.4 kg∙10a -1 ). The total ginsenoside content of ‘Cheonmyeong’ (31.70 ± 1.83 mg∙g -1 ) was higher than that of ‘Chunpoong’ (26.62 ± 1.60 mg∙g -1 ). Concentrations of the ginsenosides Rg1 (which improves human memory and learning), Rf (which is effective for neuronal oscillation), and Rc (which has anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects) were higher in ‘Cheonmyeong’ than in ‘Chunpoong’. ‘Cheonmyeong’ is likely to have strong tolerance against physiological disorders, ensuring reliable production of ginseng, even in response to changes in the cultivation environment. Additional key words: agronomic characteristics, Panax ginseng physiological disorders, pure line selection, qualitative traits

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer) is a multifunctional medicinal herb used worldwide and is an economically important high-value crop in Korea. Here, we presented the mitochondrial genome of P. ginseng landrace ‘Jakyung’, which is one of the most common cultivars cultivated in Korean farms. The complete mitochondrial genome sequence was 464,661 bp in length and had a single circular form. The ginseng mitochondrial genome encoded 72 unique genes, including 45 protein-coding genes, 24 tRNA genes, and three rRNA genes. Nucleotide composition analysis revealed a GC content of 45.1%, with a slightly higher A + T bias (A, 27.1%; T, 27.8%; G, 22.5%; C, 22.6%). Phylogenetic analysis showed that P. ginseng was closely related to Daucus carota in the Apiales. This complete mitochondrial genome sequence of P. ginseng provides valuable genetic information for further studies of this important medicinal plant.

Panax ginseng C. A. Mey., a perennial herb belonging to the family Araliaceae, is a valuable medicinal plant with distinctive biological characteristics. However, comprehensive analyses of the mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) are lacking. In this study, we sequenced the complete mitogenome of ginseng based on long-read data from the Nanopore sequencing platform. The mitogenome was assembled into a "master circle" form of 464,705 bp and contained 72 unique genes. The genome had three large repeat regions, and 10.42% of the sequences were mitogenome sequences of plastid origin (MTPTs). In total, 278 variants (213 SNPs and 65 InDels) were discovered, most of which were identified in intergenic regions. The MTPT regions were mutational hotspots, harboring 74.5% of the variants. The ginseng mitogenome showed a higher mutation rate than that of the chloroplast genome, and this pattern is uncommon in plants. In addition, 10 Kompetitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) markers were developed from 10 SNPs, excluding those in MTPT regions. These markers accurately identified the genotypes of 59 Korean ginseng accessions and elucidated mitogenome diversity. These results provide insight into organellar genomes and genetic diversity in ginseng. Moreover, the complete mitogenome sequence and 10 KASP markers will be useful for ginseng research and breeding.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a self-fertilized crop, and all ginseng cultivars developed until now have been bred by pure-line selection.Ginseng has few genetic variations and lacks diversity in genetic resources.To obtain genetic resources with useful traits, mutations must be artificially induced.In this study, indehiscent seeds from ginseng landrace were treated with 20 to 400 Gy of gamma rays for 24 hours to determine the optimal dose for mutation breeding.Results showed no significant differences in seed dehiscence rates among the 0 Gy (control) to 80 Gy groups.However, above 100 Gy, the dehiscence rate sharply decreased as the radiation dose increased.Seed development below 40 Gy was superior to that of control but declined rapidly above 60 Gy.The seedling survival rate decreased significantly at 60 Gy (less than 50% compared to that of the control), and most seeds did not survive above 100 Gy.We observed a significant reduction in the growth of seedlings irradiated above 60 Gy.The above results suggest that a suitable gamma-ray dose for inducing mutagenesis in indehiscent ginseng seeds is 40 Gy.