The Large Hadron Collider forward (LHCf) experiment studies the production of neutral particles in the very forward region of high-energy hadronic collisions at the LHC. These measurements provide essential calibration data for hadronic interaction models used in simulations of extensive air showers initiated by ultra-high-energy cosmic rays. The LHCf experiment measures forward-produced neutral particles, such as neutrons, photons, π0, and η mesons, which play a key role in the development of extensive air showers. Proton–proton collisions at the LHC reach center-of-mass energies up to 13.6 TeV, corresponding in the fixed-target frame to cosmic-ray interactions at energies close to 1017 eV in the Earth’s atmosphere. LHCf has collected data in proton–proton collisions at several energies, as well as in proton–lead collisions, enabling detailed comparisons between experimental results and predictions of hadronic interaction models. This contribution reviews the most significant LHCf results, with emphasis on Run II proton–proton data at s=13TeV, including measurements of forward neutron, photon, and η meson production. Finally, future prospects are discussed, focusing on ongoing analyses of Run III proton–proton data at s=13.6TeV and on the final LHCf operation in proton-oxygen collisions at sNN=9.6TeV, which best reproduces cosmic-ray interactions with nuclei of the Earth’s atmosphere.

This letter reports the differential production cross-section of photons in six pseudorapidity regions covering η  >  6.1, measured by the RHICf experiment with pp collisions at s = 510 GeV conducted in June 2017. In addition, the cross-sections in the three regions of the xF-pT phase space coverage that are the same as those of the LHCf results at s = 7 and 13 TeV were obtained and compared. Considering the uncertainties, the results were observed to be consistent with both the Feynman scaling law and the model predictions of EPOS-LHC, QGSJET-II-04, Sibyll 2.3d, and DPMjet-III 2019.1, although certain models exhibited weak collision energy dependencies.

How atmospheric muons made a comeback to the Department of Physics and Astronomy in Firenze. The same Department that saw the birth of cosmic ray physics with Bruno Rossi and Giuseppe Occhialini.

Transmission muography is an imaging technique that allows us to obtain two-dimensional and three-dimensional average-target density images by measuring the transmission of atmospheric muons. Through this technique, it is possible to observe density anomalies inside a target volume and locate them three-dimensionally. In this work, the potential of the technique will be illustrated through the description of the results of two measurements carried out in the tourist path of the Temperino mine (Livorno, Italy) in an area where a higher concentration of Radon gas is measured. This section of the gallery, located at a depth of about 50 m and dating back to the Etruscan period, might contain ancient cavities not yet discovered that could represent preferential conduits into which Radon gas is released into the tourist route. The muographic results are illustrated, focusing on the search for low-density anomalies attributable to cavities. The measurements are part of the MIMA-SITES project aimed at ensuring the safety of specific zones within the Temperino mine.

The employment of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for digital photogrammetry applications (UAV-DP), together with satellite data, has emerged as a pivotal tool for conducting reliable muographic campaigns. This study aims to present a comprehensive workflow designed specifically to plan and support UAV-derived data for muon radiography objectives. Through a real case study conducted at the Etruscan necropolis of Palazzone (Umbria, Italy), this study shows the creation of high-resolution three-dimensional models of the ground surface/sub-surface by integrating UAV-DP, laser scanner and GPS-acquired data. The accuracy of these three-dimensional environment significantly influences the reliability of the simulated muon flux transmission, which is crucial for inferring the relative transmission values and estimating the density distributions. This study highlights the importance of UAV-derived data in the muography process and their potential to enhance or affect the outcomes of muon imaging results. Furthermore, it emphasizes the need for a multidisciplinary approach in muography applications, particularly focusing on the integration and utilization of UAV-based data to improve spatial environment reconstruction.

From 2019 to 2023, the MIMA-SITES research project tested the application of muon radiography (muography) at the Temperino mine in the Archaeological and Mining Park of San Silvestro, Italy. Through the collaboration of several partners, i.e., Regione Toscana, National Institute for Nuclear Physics INFN division of Florence, Institute of Geosciences and Earth Resources – CNR, Parchi della Val di Cornia SpA, and the Department of Earth Sciences of the University of Florence, the project has took advantage of the MIMA (Muon Imaging for Mining and Archaeology) muon tracker to test the reliability of muography for archaeological and mining purposes. Focusing on revealing density variations in the mine’s overlying rock mass, this research project identified some unknown cavities and a Cu-Fe-enriched high-density ore shoots. Using the achieved results, multimedia contents were created by employing terrestrial, aerial, and mobile laser scanners (TLS, ALS, and MLS, respectively), unmanned aerial vehicle digital photogrammetry (UAV-DP), and muography data. The results of the muon radiography surveys have been integrated into a new exhibit within the museum pathway of the Temperino mine. This initiative stands as one of the early international examples of utilizing muography to enhance geological heritage within an archaeological and mining park. In addition to emphasizing its geological and archaeological importance, the exhibit sparks interest in local geotourism. This research confirms that incorporating innovative scientific content and multimedia elements can boosts the attractiveness of geological, archaeological, and mining parks, attracting new visitors. Muography can play a key role in cultivating knowledge and curiosity about the distinct geological and archaeological heritage of a site.

The MUon RAdiography of VESuvius (MURAVES) project aims to use muography imaging techniques to study the internal structure of the summit of the Mt. Vesuvius, an active volcano near Naples, Italy. This paper presents recent advancements in both data analysis and simulation tools that enhance the quality and reliability of the experiments results. A new track selection method, termed the Golden Selection, has been introduced to select high quality muon tracks by applying a refined Chi2 based criterion. This selection improves the signal to background ratio and enhances the resolution of muographic images. Additionally, the simulation framework has been upgraded with the integration of the MULDER (MUon simuLation for DEnsity Reconstruction) library, which unifies the functionalities of pervious used libraries within a single platform. MULDER enables efficient and accurate modeling of muon flux variations due to topographical features. An agreement is shown between simulated and experimental flux map.

This paper investigates the use of muon imaging technique (muography) to enhance engineering geological surveys, integrated with advanced geomatic methods like LiDAR systems and UAV-based digital photogrammetry, for detecting and characterizing cavities in an historical and partially abandoned mining site. The case study focuses on the Temperino mine, located within the Archaeological and Mining Park of San Silvestro, Italy. Historically significant, the site was mined for skarn minerals from the Etruscan period until the 20th century and the rock mass contains a complex network of both man-made and natural voids. These cavities pose significant risks to rock mass stability, including roof collapses, sidewall spalling and surface subsidence. In this study, transmission-based muography data collected using a muon tracker inside the mine were combined with terrestrial and mobile laser scanning (TLS and MLS), UAV-based photogrammetry, and geological modeling to reconstruct the geometry of cavities and surrounding rock mass. This integrated approach enables to achieve a preliminary numerical model of stress and strain distributions to assess stability conditions. By addressing the challenges associated with cavity detection and stability analysis, this study highlights the potential of muography to complement traditional engineering geological survey methods and the importance of a multidisciplinary approach to enhance safety, resource management and the sustainable revitalization of historic and abandoned mining districts.

Transmission-based muography (TM) is becoming an innovative and nondestructive imaging technique based on the measurement of the cosmic ray muon flux attenuation within matter, allowing the reconstruction of two-or three-dimensional transmission and density polar maps.This paper presents our most recent findings on TM measurements applied to ore shoot prospecting.All measurements and results were obtained during the MIMA-SITES project years of research.The case study was the Temperino mine in the San Silvestro Archaeological and Mining Park (Campiglia Marittima, Italy).Here, several magmatic and metasomatic geological units outcrop.Among them is a Cu-Fe-Zn-Pb(-Ag) sulfide skarn complex primarily composed of hedenbergite and ilvaite minerals.

The Palazzone Necropolis, located southeast of the hill of Perugia (Italy), is an Etruscan archaeological site open to the public, and well-known thanks to the numerous finds and its (∼)200 tombs from the Hellenistic age and 5 from the Archaic period.The most important tomb is represented by the Volumni Hypogeum.The Palazzone Necropolis is also defined as an archaeogeosite as it has been the subject of geological studies which, through the observation of the walls of the tombs, has made it possible to expand the geological framework for the interpretation of the formation of the Perugia hill.However, in the Palazzone Necropolis, the presence of other tombs is not excluded, especially in the eastern area of the archaeological site which is currently not open to visitors.The muography technique, thanks to the great penetrating power of atmospheric muons, fits into this context for the noninvasive identification of undiscovered cavities.This contribution will present the preliminary results of the muographic campaign carried out at the Palazzone Necropolis in which the observation of an entire hill was carried out.The results are also inserted in a geological context for the verification of the densities of the sediments that are present in this territory.

Transmission muography is a non-invasive imaging technique that exploits the penetrating power of atmospheric muons into matter to obtain two-dimensional and three-dimensional density images of the monitored structure. The detectors used are particle trackers. Muography enables the monitoring of large structures and it is also particularly useful in the archaeological field for a mapping of low-density underground anomalies potentially related to unknown or inaccessible tombs or tunnels. The Palazzone necropolis, located south of Perugia (Italy), dating back to Etruscan period, contains about 200 known tombs, some of which, such as the Volumni Hypogeum, can be visited thanks to a touristic route. The eastern area of the necropolis, on the other hand, does not have a touristic path and is partially unknown. The objective of the muographic measurement campaign is to support the re-evaluation of this archaeological area by searching for new anthropic cavities and identifying them three-dimensionally. One of the goals of this study is to obtain a three-dimensional localization of cavities starting from a single muographic measurement by exploiting an image focusing algorithm. For this purpose, an area that contains a known cavity was used as the reference cavity for the test of the three-dimensional reconstruction algorithm.

The HERD experiment is a future experiment for the direct detection of high-energy cosmic rays and is to be installed on the Chinese space station in 2027. The main objectives of HERD are the first direct measurement of the knee of the cosmic ray spectrum, the extension of electron+positron flux measurement up to tens of TeV, gamma ray astronomy, and the search for indirect signals of dark matter. The main component of the HERD detector is an innovative calorimeter composed of about 7500 LYSO scintillating crystals assembled in a spherical shape. Two independent readout systems of the LYSO scintillation light will be installed on each crystal: the wavelength-shifting fibers system developed by IHEP and the double photodiode readout system developed by INFN and CIEMAT. In order to measure protons in the cosmic ray knee region, we must be able to measure energy release of about 250 TeV in a single crystal. In addition, in order to calibrate the system, we need to measure typical releases of minimum ionizing particles that are about 30 MeV. Thus, the readout systems should have a dynamic range of about 107. In this article, we analyze the development and the performance of the double photodiode readout system. In particular, we show the performance of a prototype readout by the double photodiode system for electromagnetic showers as measured during a beam test carried out at the CERN SPS in October 2021 with high-energy electron beams.

The MUon RAdiography of VESuvius (MURAVES) project aims at the study of Mt. Vesuvius, an active and hazardous volcano near Naples, Italy, with the use of muons freely and abundantly produced by cosmic rays. In particular, the MURAVES experiment intends to perform muographic imaging of the internal structure of the summit of Mt. Vesuvius. The challenging measurement of the rock density distribution in its summit by muography, in conjunction with data from other geophysical techniques, can help model possible eruption dynamics. The MURAVES apparatus consists of an array of three independent and identical muon trackers, with a total sensitive area of 3 square meters. In each tracker, a sequence of 4 XY tracking planes made of plastic scintillators is complemented by a 60 cm thick lead wall inserted between the two downstream planes to improve rejection of background from low energy muons. The apparatus is currently acquiring data. This paper presents preliminary results from the analysis of the first data samples acquired with trackers pointing towards Mt. Vesuvius, including the first relative measurement of the density projection of two flanks of the volcano at three different altitudes; we also present the workflow of the simulation chain of the MURAVES experiment and its ongoing developments.

The BLEMAB European project (BLast furnace stack density Estimation through online Muon ABsorption measurements), the evolution of the previous Mu -Blast European project, is designed to investigate in detail the capability of muon radiography techniques applied to the imaging of the inner zone of a blast furnace. In particular, the goal of this collaboration is to characterize the internal region (so-called cohesive zone) where the slowly downward -moving material begins to soften and melt, which plays an important role in the performance of the blast furnace itself. In this contribution, we describe the state-of-the-art of the muon tracking system which is currently being developed and installed at a blast furnace on the ArcelorMittal site in Bremen (Germany). Moreover, we will present the GEANT4 simulation framework devised for this application together with the simulation results. Finally, we will show the possible contribution of multiple scattering effects to such peculiar applications.

Transverse single-spin asymmetries $A_{\textrm{N}}$ of forward neutrons at pseudorapidities larger than 6 had only been studied in the transverse momentum range of $p_{\textrm{T}} < 0.4$ GeV/$c$. The RHICf Collaboration has extended the previous measurements up to 1.0 GeV/$c$ in polarized $p+p$ collisions at $\sqrt{s}~=~510$GeV, using an electromagnetic calorimeter installed in the zero-degree area of the STAR detector at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. The resulting $A_{\textrm{N}}$s increase in magnitude with $p_{\textrm{T}}$ in the high longitudinal momentum fraction $x_{\textrm{F}}$ range, but reach a plateau at lower $p_{\textrm{T}}$ for lower $x_{\textrm{F}}$. For low transverse momenta the $A_{\textrm{N}}$s show little $x_{\textrm{F}}$ dependence and level off from intermediate values. For higher transverse momenta the $A_{\textrm{N}}$s show also an indication to reach a plateau at increased magnitudes. The results are consistent with previous measurements at lower collision energies, suggesting no $\sqrt{s}$ dependence of the neutron asymmetries. A theoretical model based on the interference of $\pi$ and $a_1$ exchange between two protons could partially reproduce the current results, however an additional mechanism is necessary to describe the neutron $A_{\textrm{N}}$s over the whole kinematic region measured.

Muon radiography is an advanced imaging technique that utilizes cosmic muons to visualize the interior of structures and materials, making it highly valuable for subsurface investigations. In this study, we present a measurement conducted using muon radiography at the Temperino mine. We demonstrate the application of an adaptive binning approach using Voronoi tessellation to enhance image visualization and improve cavity detection. The results reveal that the adaptive binning technique significantly improves the visibility of regions with cavities. The combination of muon radiography and adaptive binning through Voronoi tessellation showcases its potential as a powerful tool for subsurface exploration and geological studies, providing a more accurate and reliable approach for cavity detection and characterization.