The objective of this study was to determine if the stability of water temperature attributes suggested by an analysis conducted in 2003 (Larson and Larson 2001; 2003) was continued over a 20-yr period. The pattern of degree accumulations observed in the daily heating and cooling cycles of three streams in 1998, 2013, 2014, 2016, and 2018 were studied in Grant County, Oregon. The average air and water temperatures remained stable at each site and followed the expected natural patterns (Larson and Larson 2001) described in an earlier study. Within each sampling year, mean air and water temperature remained within 1-2 degrees C and there were no significant differences between the rates of heating between the study years or between sites. (C) 2020 The Society for Range Management. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Roper (2020) conducted a critique of the Larson et al. (2019) study of the accuracy and confidence of data collected using systematic and random sampling designs. Roper (2020) did not provide a data set but speculated that the Larson et al. (2019) conclusions likely reflected differences in the number of plants evaluated at each plot and the low number of independent observers rather than the sample design. Our random sampling design employed multiple randomly located quadrat locations and measured multiple plants (> 5) that were averaged within the plot to represent plot characteristics. Data collected in this fashion fulfilled assumptions intrinsic to and necessary for statistical analysis using plot data as observations. Thus, the statistical observations reported in the original paper are valid. (C) 2020 The Society for Range Management. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A 2-yr study of livestock/wildlife tracking was conducted on four streams in eastern Oregon. Binomial sampling of tracks proved to be an effective statistical method for monitoring the proportion of samples containing tracks on stream greenlines and testing the observed value against an established standard. Study results indicate that tracks are related to variables outside of the control of livestock grazing management.

Sampling design influences the accuracy and confidence that an investigator can place on the information derived from a data set. This study was undertaken to quantify the influence of systematic and random sample designs on the estimation of stubble height. Variance estimates, data set range, adequate sample size, and relative variation were greater with the systematic sampling design, and mean estimates were lower when compared with estimates derived from a random sampling design.

Soil freeze-thaw cycles can result in soil surface crusting, pedestaling, and movement. This study was undertaken to quantify the amount of heaving and soil moisture migration in a silt loam soil from the sagebrush steppe. Soil columns containing silt loam soil with moisture treatments of 26%, 34%, 42%, or 50% water content and initial temperatures of 9o C or 20o C were exposed to − 7o C for 18 h, which did not completely freeze the soil to full depth. Moisture redistribution amounts of 10% to 20% were observed in treatments above field capacity. Surface saturation was observed after freezing with treatments of 42% and 50% water volume. Soil heaving of up to 0.5 cm was observed after one freezing event.

•Browse estimates in this study were made using a random sampling strategy to monitor riparian shrub communities using presence or absence to determine the percent of shrub occupancy and intensity of browsing.•This height-based shrub monitoring takes the guesswork out of complex browse estimates.•The strategic timing of monitoring periods facilitates separation of wildlife and livestock browsing impacts.•Height-based shrub monitoring was an efficient and repeatable method for tracking shrub occupancy, maturity, and shrub form.

Spatial variability in terrain, vegetation, and other features affect cattle and wildlife distribution on mountainous grazing lands of the western United States. Yet we have a poor understanding of how this spatial variability influences risk of wolf-cattle encounters and associated depredation. This knowledge gap severely limits our capacity to prevent or mitigate wolf-cattle conflict. Research addressing this problem was conducted in 2009-2011 at four study areas in western Idaho to evaluate models and mapping tools for predicting spatial risk of wolf-cattle encounters. Lactating beef cows grazing these study areas were instrumented with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars and tracked at 5-min intervals throughout the summer grazing season. Resource selection function (RSF) models, based on negative binomial regression, were developed from these GPS data and used to map the relative probability of cattle use in each study area. A wolf RSF model originally developed by Ausband et al. (2010) was applied to map study-area habitat types in terms of their relative suitability as wolf rendezvous sites. Spatial relationships between cattle and wolf selectivity patterns were used to classify and map wolf-cattle encounter risk to 5 classes (very high to very low) across each study area during the wolf rendezvous period (15 June-15 August). Validation analyses using GPS-based, wolf-cattle encounter observations (n = 200) revealed 84% of observed encounters occurred in areas of high- or very high-encounter risk (class 4 or 5). About 75% of confirmed wolf depredations recorded among three of four study areas were located in areas of high or very high risk. This new predictive understanding of wolf-cattle encounter risk will greatly aid livestock producers, resource managers, and policy makers in more effectively applying husbandry practices, allocating mitigation resources, and developing conflict mitigation plans and policies applicable throughout the mountainous western United States and potentially other regions of the world where wolves and cattle come into conflict. Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of The Society for Range Management.

Cattle grazing lands in the mountainous western United States are rugged, complex, and extensive. Terrain, vegetation, and other landscape features vary greatly across space. Risk of wolf-cattle encounters and potential for depredation loss certainly differ spatially as consequence of this variability. Yet, our understanding of this spatial risk is quite poor and this knowledge gap severely hampers our abilities to manage wolf-livestock interactions and mitigate conflicts. During 2009-2011, a research study was conducted at four study areas (USFS cattle grazing allotments) in western Idaho to evaluate and predict risk of wolf-cattle encounters. Each year, a random sample of 10 lactating beef cows from each study area was instrumented with GPS collars that logged positions at 5-minute intervals throughout the summer grazing season. Cattle resource selection was modeled using these GPS data and negative-binomial regression. An existing model was used to classify habitats within the study areas in terms of probability of use by wolves as rendezvous sites. Efficacy of this model was confirmed using scat, telemetry, and rendezvous site data. Spatial overlaps in the predicted selectivity of wolves and cattle were assessed and study area landscapes were then classified into five encounter-risk classes (very low to very high). Concurrent wolf and cattle GPS tracking data were used to document wolf-cattle encounters and thus evaluate the accuracy of this classification. About 94% of observed wolf-cattle encounters occurred within either the high or highest encounter-risk classes. Areas classified to the highest risk class were located on smooth, relatively flat slopes in concave terrain (e.g., stream terrace meadows) but not all were associated with surface water. Having this predictive understanding of where wolf-cattle encounters are most likely to occur will allow livestock producers and wildlife managers to more effectively apply resources, husbandry practices, and mitigation techniques to reduce conflict.

Ranch management has become more complex since wolves were reintroduced into Idaho and Wyoming in 1996. In wolf areas, livestock have experienced increased death loss and greater stress. Increased livestock aggressiveness has been observed, especially toward working dogs, making handling livestock more difficult. Additionally ranchers have reported a loss of body condition, lower conception rates, increased time and expense for management. Our study was designed to investigate the effect of wolf presence on cattle behavior, landscape use patterns, and resource selection by comparing high wolf density areas against low wolf density areas. This study also generated baseline information on cattle spatial behavior before wolves were on the landscape. A Before-After/Control-Impact Paired (BACIP) experimental design was used. Control study areas in Idaho (3) have high wolf presence while Impact study areas in Oregon (3) started with no wolf presence, and are shifting to elevated wolf presence. Paired Idaho and Oregon areas have similar topography, vegetation composition, wild ungulate prey bases, and livestock management. Cows are tracked at 5-minute intervals using GPS collars (10 per area) throughout the grazing season. Wolf presence is monitored by GPS, trail cameras, and scat surveys. Ten GPS-collared cattle in an Idaho study area encountered a GPS-collared wolf 783 times at less than 500 meters during 137 days in the 2009 grazing season. At 100 meters there were 53 encounters; 52 at night. Tests of naïve and experienced cattle exposed to a simulated wolf encounter found increased excitability and fear-related physiological stress responses in cows previously exposed to wolves. This was shown through increased cortisol levels, body temperature, and temperament scores. Cattle presence near occupied houses doesn’t offer protection from wolves. Data shows wolves within 500m of occupied houses 588 times during 198 days of tracking. Many confirmed depredations on this site were also close to houses.

The presence of gray wolves (Canis lupus) can directly and indirectly affect beef cattle (Bos taurus) production on rangelands of the Northern Rocky Mountains. While fairly extensive knowledge exists for the direct effects of wolf predation threat (e.g., cattle death and injury losses, elevated stress), our understanding of wolf-caused changes in cattle behavior and the associated cascade of potential indirect effects on cattle resource selection, diet quality, activity budgets, and energetic relationships is still largely in its infancy. We investigated whether wolf presence affected the daily travel distance of Global Positioning System (GPS)−collared cattle under a replicated, Impact-Control study conducted in western Idaho and northeastern Oregon during 2008−2012. Cattle in three Control (Oregon) study areas, where wolf presence was consistently low, traveled farther per day (13.7 ± 0.396 SE km day−1) than those in three Impact (Idaho) study areas (11.4 ± 0.396 SE km day−1) with moderate to high wolf presence. At Control study areas, cattle traveled farthest per day in July (13.2 ± 0.355 SE km day−1) and were least mobile in October (11.8 ± 0.365 SE km day−1), but daily travel distances were similar across all months for cattle in Impact study areas. This observational study provides evidence suggesting cattle in mountainous grazing areas alter their spatial behavior in response to gray wolf presence. These behavioral changes have energetic consequences that could potentially impact cattle productivity and ranch economics. Additional research into the activity budget and resource selection responses of these collared cattle is required to better understand the specific mechanisms behind these daily travel distance results.

The spatial occupancy patterns and activity of cattle grazing three riparian pastures was investigated in northeastern Oregon using Global Positioning System (GPS) collars logging at 1-sec intervals. Cattle consistently selected plant communities as grazing areas that had forage in sufficient volume to meet their requirements and favored communities as resting areas that were dry and open. Cattle were stationary for more than 50% of the time in each pasture and consistently rested between dark and 04:00 hours. Interaction with stream channels was found to be 1-2% of total occupancy time and occurred on less than 10% of channel length. Cattle were indifferent or avoided channel areas relative to their area and, when in this zone, they spent most of their time moving not resting. Cattle did not prefer the stream bank zone and spent only 2% of their time in that zone. When occupied, the stream bank zone was used as a travel corridor to gain access to water or cross the channel to access other pasture areas. These results are in contrast with the general belief that cattle are a primary occupant of the stream bank/channel area; additional research is needed to define factors influencing cattle occupancy.

Water developments have been considered a fundamental tool for dispersing livestock and reducing livestock impact on riparian and aquatic habitats associated with perennial streams. Quantifying the efficacy of water developments has been difficult because of the need to continuously monitor water sources for the timing and intensity of use. The advent of global positioning system (GPS) tracking technology has largely overcome this hurdle and presented new research opportunities. We conducted a five-year study to quantify and evaluate the relative use of existing water developments by cattle on three extensive study areas in northeastern Oregon, United States. Ten randomly selected beef cows from herds grazing each study area were fitted with GPS collars recording animal positions at five-minute intervals throughout the grazing season. Cattle occupancy in 60 m (196.9 ft) buffers around water developments was determined monthly and annually. Use of water developments was contrasted with that of riparian zones. Cattle use of water developments varied substantially from site-to-site, month-to-month, and year-to-year. In some months, cattle watered exclusively from off-stream developments, and in others, cattle watered nearly exclusively from streams. Substantial differences in the relative use of individual water developments were also seen by season and year. Some developments received no use at all during the five-year study while others were visited frequently. Our results suggest off-stream water development is a useful managerial strategy, but careful placement is required to improve the likelihood that cattle will find and use these water sources and thus decrease their dependence and use of permanent streams and associated riparian areas.

Stream and riparian health is a major concern for state and federal land management agencies that are charged with oversight of extensive land holdings in the mountain west of the United States. Several federal agencies in the 19805 and 1990s determined that livestock grazing had adversely impacted a majority of federal lands in this region. In response, management was.changed on grazing allotments to focus on stream system health. Recent advanced global positioning system (GPS) logging capabilities, both accuracy and frequency/duration of logging, coupled with rapidly developing geographic information system (GIS) analytical capabilities allowed evaluation of livestock use of streams and riparian zones on mountain rangelands. This study was undertaken to clarify spatiotemporal characteristics of cattle use of perennial streams and associated riparian areas under current US Forest Service (USFS) management and to suggest managerial strategies with the potential to maintain or improve riverine environments. We initiated a five year study in 2008 to evaluate the use by cattle of 30 m (98.4 ft) and 60 m (196.9,ft) buffers on permanent streams on three extensive study sites in northeastern Oregon.The three study sites cover 43,972 ha (108,700 ac) within a broader region 120 km (74.5 mi) north-south by 50 km (31 mi) east-west. Ten randomly selected cows from herds grazing each site were fitted with GPS collars that recorded position, date, and time at approximately five minute intervals throughout the grazing season. Nearly 3,750,000 cow positions were collected on the allotments during the study. The relative occupancy of cattle in buffers along both sides of perennial streams were determined on an annual and monthly basis by site. Each position was tagged with the date and time of occurrence. Relative use within 30 m of the stream varied substantially from site to site (0.74% to 2.54%), month to month (0.00% to 5.21%), and year to year (0.86% to 2.13%). In some months, GPS data indicated that watering was nearly exclusive from streams. In other months, stream use was low or nil, and watering was from water developments, small springs, seeps, puddles, or other source. Cattle preferred to access streams at specific locations where streambank slope, the lack of physical obstructions, and solid footing facilitated water access.

Heart-podded hoary cress or whitetop (Cardaria draba (L.) Desv.) is a native plant of Eurasia that was accidentally introduced into North America in the early 1800's. The first botanical collection in the United States was made at Long Island, New York, in 1862. By the early 1900's heart-podded hoary cress had spread across the United States and was recognized as a noxious weed of alfalfa, small grains, peas, and other crops. Heart-podded hoary cress is now found throughout the United States except in southern portions of California and the south central States. Movement from cultivated fields to adjacent rangelands is common and increasing. In a report to the Oregon Department of Agriculture, H.D. Radtke estimated heart-podded hoary cress occupies nearly 1.7 million acres in Oregon alone, and is responsible for annual production losses of $2.5 million in that state. Heart-podded hoary cress is classified as a noxious weed in 24 States and four Canadian Provinces. It can form dense monocultures that displace native plants and reduce biodiversity, wildlife habitat and forage production (Fig. I), and contains chemicals we have learned about the ecology and management of this troublesome weed.

Community dynamics and dominance on cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.) and yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis L.) infested rangeland appear to be influenced by resource acquisition rates and duration of growth, Objectives were to determine the effects of densities, proportions, and soil depth on the growth rate and duration of growth of these species, In 6 field experiments isolated individuals, monocultures (100, 1,000, 10,000 plants m(-2)), and mixtures (same densities arranged factorially) were grown with unrestricted and restricted (0.2- and 0.5-m) soil depths, Shoot weights were determined on 12-day intervals beginning on day 24 and ending on day 72 for plants grown with restricted soil depth and day 96 (cheatgrass) and day 108 (yellow starthistle) for plants grown in unrestricted soil, Quadratic growth curves were fit for each replication for plants grown in isolation, Linear and quadratic models were developed for plants grown in monocultures and mixtures, Simple linear regression coefficients were used as growth rates and regressed over plant density, Time of inflection (an indicator of the duration of growth) for plants growing in monocultures and mixtures was calculated from quadratic models, Growth rate of yellow starthistle was about 7 times faster and duration of growth 25 days longer, than those of cheatgrass when grown in isolation without soil depth restriction, As densities were increased and/or soil depth decreased, growth rate and duration of growth were lowered and the difference between species were masked, Growth rates and duration of growth of cheatgrass and yellow starthistle appear to depend on plant density, soil depth, and available soil moisture.

Diffuse knapweed (Centaurea diffusa Lam.), an invasive weed, has reduced forage production and biodiversity, and increased soil erosion on over a million hectares of rangeland in the western United States. This study evaluated the effects of a single grass defoliation on establishment of diffuse knapweed seeded at 2 rates into a bluebunch wheatgrass (Pseudoroegneria spicata [Pursh.] Scribn and Smith)/needle-and-thread (Stipa comata Trin. &Rupr.) community and a crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.) community. Six defoliation levels (0, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100%) and 2 seeding rates (3,000, 6,000 diffuse knapweed seeds) were applied to 1 m2 plots in a randomized-complete-block design (n=4). Diffuse knapweed was seeded in the fall of 1992, and grasses were defoliated on 28 April 1993. The number of flowering culms and weed seedlings were counted in September 1993. Densities of diffuse knapweed seedlings, juveniles, and adults, as well as plant standing crop, were determined in May 1994. Seed rate had minimal effect on diffuse knapweed density. By May 1994, densities of diffuse knapweed were about 20 and 30 plants m-2 on undefoliated bluebunch wheatgrass and crested wheatgrass plots, respectively, indicating that defoliation is not required for this noxious weed to become established. Higher levels of grass defoliation (>60%), especially of bluebunch wheatgrass, enhanced diffuse knapweed establishment, indicating that moderate (<60%) defoliation would not necessarily accelerate invasion by diffuse knapweed.

Experiments were performed to determine the effect of energy source and proportion of escape protein on lactational performance, body measurements, and reproductive activity. Sixty-eight lactating Holstein cows were assigned to one of four dietary treatments during wk 2 to 12 postpartum: 1) high fat (3% tallow), high escape protein (5% feather meal:blood meal, 85:15, DM basis); 2) high fat, low escape protein (0% feather meal:blood meal); 3) low fat (0% tallow), high escape protein; and 4) low fat, low escape protein. Diets were similar in energy and CP contents. Overall mean milk yield (32.9 kg/d) was not affected by diet, but efficiency of FCM yield was highest with high fat and high escape protein. Daily DMI and net energy balance were greater for cows fed the diet low in fat and low in escape protein, but days to first ovulation were not different among groups. Total cholesterol in plasma increased as DIM increased, and concentrations were greater for cows fed the high fat diets than for cows fed the low fat diets after 35 DIM. Concentrations of luteal phase progesterone and follicular phase estradiol tended to be greater for cows fed the high fat and low escape protein, but conception rate from first AI was greatest for cows fed the high fat and high escape protein. Supplemental tallow and escape protein did not consistently affect lactational performance but did improve efficiency of FCM yield and conception rate from first AI.

R eductions in salmon populations over the past 20 years have created a sense of urgency for improved management of watersheds, fish habitat and water quality within the Columbia River Basin. One management approach that has gained in popularity is to increase woody vegetation in riparian zones. The intent behind these plantings is to increase bank stability, stream debris and provide shade for stream temperature control (Beschta 1991) Oregon Department of Forestry (1994) has established forest rules and regulations for riparian zones of 40 live conifer trees per 1,000 feet along large streams and 30 live conifer trees per 1,000 feet along medium streams. Similarly, Oregon Department of Environmental Quality is developing water temperature standards for streams throughout the state. In northeastern Oregon the Upper Grande Ronde River Plan established watershed standards that require meadows to have at least 80% of the banks covered with shrubs, of which, at least 50% should be more than 8 feet tall (Anderson et. al. 1993). These approaches reflect the view that streamside forests profoundly influence habitat structure and food resources of stream systems. Additionally, tree height and distance away from the stream are considered meaningful indicators of aquatic habitat components including wood recruitment and degree of shade (Thomas et. al. 1993). Activities by man that modify the amount of shade over streams have been associated with changes in water temperature (Brown et. al. 1971). Some researchers have concluded that loss of vegetation in a riparian area due to grazing, logging, or overuse by other activities can be directly linked to undesirable water temperatures due to the loss of shade (Anderson et. al. 1993). The establishment of vegetation shade along streams to control stream temperature may seem reasonable upon first review. However this is a simplistic view of a complex and dynamic system. The purpose of this paper is to provide a discussion of energy exchange within a body of water and to consider the contribution of vegetation shade to that process. This discussion will occur in two sections: 1) Characteristics of water, water heating, and water cooling, and 2) The creation of woody vegetation shade in riparian areas. This paper is not intended to provide a complete review of the physics of energy exchange, nor will it provide discussions of more complicated forms of energy exchange in streams. Four equations (boxed) are provided as reference material in this paper. They are not required to read the text of this paper.