PURPOSE: The carotid canal transmits the internal carotid artery through the skull base. The external opening of the carotid canal (EOCC) is frequently used as a reference point in radiological imaging and lateral skull base surgery. However, quantitative data regarding EOCC morphology and its precise spatial relationships with adjacent foramina and bony structures remain limited. METHODS: A total of 45 adult dry human skulls (90 sides) were examined. The maximum anteroposterior (APD) and lateromedial diameters (LMD) of the EOCC were measured, and EOCC morphology was classified into three types according to predefined morphometric ratios. The positional relationships of the EOCC were determined relative to the foramen ovale (FO) and the occipital condyle (OC). In addition, linear distances between the EOCC and adjacent anatomical landmarks, including the foramen spinosum, foramen jugulare, zygomatic orifice, mastoid process, and lateral plate of the pterygoid process, were recorded. All morphometric data were obtained using a digital caliper with a precision of 0.01 mm, and statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software. RESULTS: The most common EOCC configuration was Type 2, characterized by an APD greater than the LMD without exceeding twice the LMD (94.45%). The EOCC was most frequently located in oblique and anterolateral positions relative to the FO and the OC, respectively. CONCLUSION: The results provide detailed morphometric and positional data on the EOCC and contribute to a more standardized anatomical description of this region. These findings may serve as reference information for anatomical research, radiological evaluation, and surgical planning involving the lateral skull base.

Anatomical variations of the circle of Willis are frequently encountered; however, certain configurations may have significant clinical and hemodynamic implications. Variations involving the anterior cerebral artery and anterior communicating artery are particularly relevant due to their role in collateral circulation and their importance during surgical and endovascular interventions. A previously undescribed configuration of the anterior cerebral circulation was identified in a 69-year-old woman who presented with a transient ischemic attack. Magnetic resonance angiography demonstrated complete absence of the left A1 segment and the anterior communicating artery, with a single right A2 segment supplying the medial surfaces of both cerebral hemispheres. This configuration was accompanied by a left-sided fetal-type posterior cerebral artery. No significant stenosis was identified in the carotid or vertebrobasilar systems. This unique arterial arrangement does not correspond to currently available classification systems of anterior cerebral artery and anterior communicating artery variations. From a clinical perspective, reliance on a single A2 segment may limit collateral capacity and increase vulnerability to ischemia affecting bilateral medial frontal regions. Awareness of such variants is essential for accurate radiological interpretation and for informed procedural planning in neurosurgical or endovascular interventions involving the anterior circulation.

The great auricular nerve (GAN) is the most frequently injured nerve during rhytidectomy and parotidectomy. Moreover, it has been used as a donor graft to repair certain nerves in head and neck regions for over a quarter of a century. The study focused on easily defining the anatomical trace of GAN via external occipital protuberance (EOP). The neck regions of 26 cadavers (15 males, 11 females) were dissected bilaterally. A digital caliper was utilized for distances. The number of branches and the number of branches on the sternocleidomastoid muscle (SCM) of GAN were accounted. The mean perpendicular distances of the origin point of GAN behind the SCM to the vertical and transverse lines passing over the EOP were 72.79 ± 14.52 mm and 97.48 ± 13.65 mm, respectively. Similarly, the mean perpendicular distances of the point where GAN crossed the anterior border of the SCM to the vertical and transverse lines passing over EOP were 90.35 ± 17.73 mm and 68.75 ± 15.13 mm, respectively. The perpendicular distance of the point where GAN crossed the anterior border of SCM to the vertical line passing over EOP was statistically significant between genders (p < 0.05). The mean length on the SCM and the mean branching distance were 42.17 ± 10.83 mm and 23.53 ± 13.85 mm, respectively. Additionally, the number of branches and the number of branches on the SCM was a median of 2. The morphometric data we obtained may be useful in preventing GAN injury during rhytidectomies and parotidectomies and in easily estimating the location of the nerve during GAN harvesting.

Objective:Investigating all anatomical aspects of the parietal foramen (PF) is essential. This study aimed to examine the anatomical features of the PF. Materials and Methods:A total of 174 dry adult human parietal bones (81 right and 93 left) were carefully examined. The frequency, shape, and direction of the PF were recorded. Measurements included the diameter of the PF (DPF), the distance of the PF to the sagittal suture (DSS), the distance of the PF to the occipital angle (DPO), and the length of the sagittal suture (LSS). Additionally, to determine the topography of the PF (TPF), the LSS/DPO ratio was calculated. The DPF was measured using needles of various diameters, while all distances were measured using a digital caliper. Results:Among the parietal bones, 112 (64.3%) had the PF, while 62 (35.7%) had none. A total of 118 PFs were identified on the 112 bones: 52 on the right side, 58 on the left side, and 8 on the sagittal suture. The foramen was single in 90.7% of cases, double in 6.8%, and triple in 2.5%. The parietal foramen appeared circular in 94.1% and oval in 5.9% of cases. Most foramina were oriented in a posteroanterior direction. The mean measurements for DPF, DSS, DPO, and LSS were 1.7±0.6 mm, 6.81±3.40 mm, 33.81±12.43 mm, and 108.94±6.91 mm, respectively. Additionally, the TPF was approximately 3:1. Conclusion:The data obtained in this study may be important for enhancing the success rate of invasive procedures involving the PF or its adjacent structures, as well as for reducing or preventing complications.

Aim: To investigate proximal ulna morphometry through a detailed analysis of 107 dry ulnae and to assert its possible clinical relevance. Materials and Methods: A total of 107 (52 left, 55 right) dry ulnae were evaluated. The ulna lengths, olecranon, and trochlear measurements were performed. All measurements were carried on with a 0.01 mm sensitive digital caliper. Results: The mean ulna length and ulna length excluding trochlear notch were 261.17±43.07 mm and, 232.37±43.17 mm, respectively. The mean posterior olecranon height, middle olecranon height, and anterior olecranon height were obtained as 24.05±2.36 mm, 17.80±1.70 mm, and 35.15±3.60 mm, respectively. The mean olecranon width was 23.20±2.79 mm. Moreover, the mean trochlear notch width, radial trochlear notch width, and ulnar trochlear notch width were 22.79±2.81 mm, 24.80±2.69 mm, and 30.14±3.05 mm, respectively. The mean radial trochlear height, ulnar trochlear height were 13.45±2.26 mm and 14.69±2.23 mm, respectively. Lastly, the mean radial notch height, radial notch width, radial notch-olecranon posterior, and radial notch-olecranon anterior were measured as 11.15±1.94 mm, 18.02±2.60 mm, 12.91±2.92 mm, and 30.94±4.62 mm, respectively. Conclusion: The findings of current study may be useful in the application of dorsal plates, intramedullary screw fixation and anatomically pre-shaped plates for the management of proximal ulna fractures.

Standardized reporting around the use of human cadavers or body donors, including the documentation of ethical considerations, has been a subject of recent debate. In this context, this study aimed to investigate changes over time in the reporting of ethical parameters in leading clinical journals representing various disciplines. All articles involving human cadavers and body donors studies published in Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research, Journal of Neurosurgery, and Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery between January 2020 and December 2024 were analyzed. Each article was assessed according to the ethical parameters for human cadavers and body donors, as reported and suggested by prior research. The extent to which the articles provided information on biological characteristics, preservation method(s), source, and ethical/legal permissions was recorded. From the assessed articles, 41.5% of the publications included information on age and sex. The vast majority reported the tissue preservation method (78.5%), while the source of the specimens was omitted in 57% of the articles. Information on informed consent of donors appeared in 24% of the articles, with ethical approval mentioned in 32%. Only 10.5% of the articles acknowledged the cadavers or body donors and their families with gratitude. The results indicate a lack of consistent reporting of ethical parameters. The findings suggest that current publications do not adequately meet previously recommended parameters for reporting research utilizing deceased persons, highlighting the need for clearer journal policies and consistent enforcement to ensure transparency, scientific rigor, and respect for donors.

Objective The endoscopic transsphenoidal approach is commonly used for sellar and suprasellar pathologies. However, reaching above the diaphragma sella, especially for posterosuperior and retrocavernous orientation, still poses some challenges. We designed and developed a steerable tip suction cannula (STSC) that has distinct leverage for endoscopic resection of such pathologies. Methods The entire suction cannula is made of stainless steel. The instrument consists of a handle, vacuum tube, suction tip bed, suction tip, finger knuckle, wire path, countersunk headpin, and isolated steel wire. The working principle of the product is to enable the surgeon to move the aspiration tip in the desired direction by steering the finger knuckle. Five cadaveric specimens fixed with the saturated salt solution were used to evaluate the instrument and obtain measurements. Results In the straight position, the STSC aspirated 2.67% slower than the control aspirator tip and 13.24% faster than that at 30° angulation. Based on the CT measurements, the mean angulation of the instrument from the frontobasal axis was 38.3°. The mean distance from the frontobasal axis was 1.3 cm. The average angulation of the tip of the instrument in the cranium was 25.5°. Conclusion The designed STSC might effectively resect large to giant pituitary adenomas, especially those with supradiaphragmatic extension. Its suction capability is comparable to that of conventional suction tubes.

Serving as a primary vessel supplying the uterus, the uterine artery (UA) was the focus of this study, which sought to describe its anatomy and measure its morphometric associations with surrounding arteries. Bilateral dissections were performed on 53 fresh female cadavers. Measurements included the lengths of the common (LCIA) and internal iliac arteries (LIIA), and the distances from the UA origin to the internal iliac artery (U–IIA) and the anterior trunk (U–AT). When the UA arose from the umbilical artery (UmA), the distance between them (U–UmA) was additionally measured. ImageJ software was employed to perform all measurements, which were expressed in millimeters. The LCIA averaged 57.44 ± 15.08 mm on the right and 58.54 ± 15.93 mm on the left. The LIIA measured 33.95 ± 15.81 mm and 30.26 ± 13.22 mm on the right and left, respectively. The mean U–IIA was 50.31 ± 16.39 mm on the right and 48.96 ± 16.02 mm on the left, while the U–AT measured 15.31 ± 5.75 mm and 18.77 ± 7.43 mm, respectively. A significant side difference was noted for the U–AT values (p = 0.002). The U–UmA averaged 6.68 ± 2.98 mm in 24 sides. These findings may offer new anatomical insights that improve the safety and effectiveness of UA ligation and embolization in managing obstetric hemorrhage and uterine fibroids.

The superior vesical artery (SVA) is one of the important arteries that supply the urinary bladder. This study aimed to investigate anatomical features of the SVA, its morphometric relationships with neighboring arteries. Totally, 102 (52 male and 50 female) fresh cadavers were dissected. The lengths of the common iliac artery (LCIA) and the internal iliac artery (LIIA) were measured. The distances between the umbilical and the first superior vesical arteries (UmbA-First SVA), and the umbilical and the last superior vesical arteries (UmbA-Last SVA) were calculated. The distance between the uterine and the first superior vesical arteries (UA-First SVA) was measured. The measurements were conducted in millimeters using the ImageJ software program. The mean LCIA was 60.75 ± 15.03 mm on the right and 61.96 ± 16.17 mm on the left. The mean LIIA was 34.19 ± 14.33 mm on the right and 32.02 ± 14.58 mm on the left. The number of SVA ranged from 1 to 4. The mean UmbA-First SVA and UmbA-Last SVA were 14.59 ± 13.80 mm and 31.12 ± 17.47 mm for the right, respectively. Additionally, the mean UmbA-First SVA and UmbA-Last SVA were 13.87 ± 13.06 mm and 35.90 ± 18.26 mm for the left, respectively. A statistically significant difference was found for UmbA-First SVA according to gender and for UmbA-Last SVA according to sides. Lastly, the mean UA-First SVA was 18.05 ± 9.26 mm on the right and 23.39 ± 13.47 mm on the left. The results of the study may guide clinicians in bladder-focused pelvic surgeries, oncological treatments, endovascular operations, and interventional radiologic treatments.

Objective: The human falx cerebri is an important anatomical structure due to the hemispheres it is adjacent to and the dural venous sinuses it contains. It is also an important landmark in determining the midline in the interhemispheric transcallosal approach for lateral and third ventricular tumours in neurosurgical practises. Thus, the goal of this cadaveric study was to investigate the existence, number, and topography of fenestra on the falx cerebri in the Turkish population. Material and Methods: For this study, 60 adult Turkish cadaveric dura maters were examined. The number of falx cerebris and the existence and topography of fenestra on the falx cerebri was determined. The length and width of the fenestra were measured using a digital compass. Result: All falces cerebrum were single, and no double or triple falx cerebri were observed. There was fenestra on the falx cerebri in 5 cases (8.3% of all cases), and two of them included multiple foramina (%40 of all fenestrae). In addition, one fenestra was on the middle part of the falx cerebri, whereas the other was placed on the posterior part of this partition. The mean length and width of these fenestrae were 23.3x7.5 mm. Conclusion: The novel findings documented in this study may be important to increase the success rate of diagnostic and operative procedures of the falx cerebri or adjacent structures and to minimise intraoperative complications during neurosurgical applications.

Abstract Purpose: Very few studies exist on the parietal foramen (PF) in Turkish skulls. We aimed to investigate the PF in Turkish population and to emphasize its possible clinical implications. Methods: A total of 174 (81 right and 93 left) Turkish dry adult human parietal bones were examined carefully. The presence and number of PF were recorded as well as shape and direction. The diameter of PF (DPF) was determined with various diameters of needles. The vertical distance of PF to sagittal suture (DSS) and to horizontal line that passes over the lambda (DPL) was calculated. The length of the sagittal suture (LSS) and the LSS/DPL ratio were also determined. All distances were measured with a digital caliper. Results: The prevalence of PF was 64.3% (112 parietal bones). A total of 118 PFs were detected, 52 on the right side, 58 on the left side, and 8 on the sagittal suture. Single (90.7%), double (6.8%), and triple (2.5%) PF existed. Circular (94.1%) and oval (5.9%) shaped PF were observed. The majority of the PF were posteroanterior direction. The most common diameter of PF was 0.8 ≤ DPF < 1.25. The mean DSS, LSS, and DPL were 6.81±3.40 mm, 108.94±6.91 mm, and 33.81±12.43 mm, respectively. In addition, the LSS/DPL ratio was approximately 3/1. Conclusion: This is the first study to examine the direction of PF in detail in Turkish population. The anatomical findings obtained in this study may play a significant role in increasing the success rate of invasive procedures involving PF.

The aim of this study is to reveal the location of the zygomaticofacial foramina, the variations of their numbers, and their connections between the zygomatico-orbital and zygomaticotemporal foramina. Ethics committee approval of our study was received by the Istanbul Medical Faculty Clinical Research Ethics Committee (date:30.07.2021, number:358356). 171 zygomatic bones of unknown gender from the Department of Anatomy, Istanbul University, were included in this study. The number of zygomaticofacial foramina and their connections with the zygomatico-orbital foramen and the zygomaticotemporal foramina were examined. Also, the morphometric distances between the zygomaticofacial foramen were calculated. Evaluation of the data was done with SPPS v.21. The number of zygomaticofacial foramina was found as 299. It was found single, double, three, four, five and six foramina, in 52 (30.4

Occipital Neuralgia (ON) is defined as a unilateral or bilateral pain in the posterior area of the scalp occurring in the distribution area or areas of the greater occipital nerve (GON), lesser occipital nerve (LON), and/or third occipital nerve (TON). In the present study, the purpose was to show the possible importance of the triangular area (TA) in nerve block applied in ON by measuring the TA between GON, TON, and LON. A total of 24 cadavers (14 males, 10 females) were used in the present study. The suboccipital region was dissected, revealing the points where the GON and TON pierced the trapezius muscle and superficial area, and the point where the LON left the sternocleidomastoid muscle from its posterior edge and was photographed. The area of the triangle between the superficial points of these three nerves and the center of gravity of the triangle (CGT) were determined by using the Image J Software and the results were analyzed statistically. The mean TA values were 952.82 ± 313.36 mm2 and 667.55 ± 273.82 mm2, respectively in male and female cadavers. Although no statistically significant differences were detected between the sides (p > 0.05), a statistically significant difference was detected between the genders (p < 0.05). The mean CGT value was located approximately 5 cm below and 3-3.5 cm laterally from the external occipital protuberance in both genders and sides. In ON that has more than one occipital nerve involvement, all occipital nerves can be blocked by targeting TA with a single occipital nerve block, and thus, the side effects that may arise from additional blocks can be reduced. The fact that there was a statistically significant difference according to the genders in the TA suggests that different block amounts can be applied according to gender.

Background: The anatomic features of the third occipital nerve (TON) are the least studied among the occipital nerves. This study aimed to analyze the anatomic features and potential compression points of the TON. Methods: The posterior neck and scalp of 39 cadavers were dissected. The TON was carefully followed from the emerging point from C2-C3 vertebrae distally. Its muscular investments were detected. The determined points were marked superficially and measured according to external occipital protuberance with Image J software. Results: The TON revealed 4 different potential entrapment points along its course. The most proximal point was between the C2 and C3 vertebrae. The second and third points were at their piercing points of semispinalis capitis and splenius capitis muscles, respectively. The final point was at its penetrating point of the trapezius muscle. The TON did not pierce the semispinalis capitis muscle on 6 sides, and pierced this muscle from 3 different points by splitting into 3 branches on 1 side. On 5 sides, the TON split into 2 branches and perforated the splenius capitis muscle from 2 different points. Conclusions: There were 4 potential compression points regarding the TON. These entrapment points and variations of the TON may play a significant role in understanding the reason for TON-related headaches and the treatment of headaches caused by the TON.

The lesser occipital nerve (LON) has one of the most variations among occipital nerves. We aimed to investigate morphological and morphometric features of LON. A total of 24 cadavers, 14 males (58%) and 10 females (42%), were dissected bilaterally. LON was classified into 3 types. The number of branches and the perpendicular distances of the point where LON emerged from the posterior border of sternocleidomastoid muscle to vertical and transverse lines passing through external occipital protuberance were determined. The shortest distance between LON and great auricular nerve (GAN), and linear distance of LON to its branching point were measured. The most common variant was Type 1 (30 sides, 62.5%), followed by Type 2 (12 sides, 25%) and Type 3 (6 sides, 12.5%), respectively. In males, Type 1 (22 sides, 78.6%) was the most common, while Type 1 (8 sides, 40%) and Type 2 (8 sides, 40%) were equally common and the most common in females. On 48 sides, 2–9 branches of LON were observed. The perpendicular distance of said point to vertical and transverse lines was meanly 63.69 ± 11.28 mm and 78.83 ± 17.21 mm, respectively. The shortest distance between LON and GAN was meanly 16.62 ± 10.59 mm. The linear distance of LON to its branching point was meanly 31.24 ± 15.95 mm. The findings reported in this paper may help clinicians in estimating the location of the nerve and/or its branches for block or decompression surgery as well as preservation of LON during related procedures.

Occipital nerve blocks are essential in diagnosing and treating headache disorders such as migraine, cervicogenic headache, occipital neuralgia, and cluster headache. In this study, we aimed to investigate the potential compression points of the greater occipital nerve (GON), third occipital nerve (TON), and lesser occipital nerve (LON) which are targeted to block in occipital nerve blocks and to develop a method to detect these points easily. To identify potential compression points of the GON, TON, and LON, we dissected 43, 41, and 26 cadavers, respectively. A rigid, transparent tool divided into 1 × 1 cm sections was placed on the external occipital protuberance to measure the determined points. The cadaveric head was viewed from above, vertically, and the coordinates corresponding to each point were noted separately. Six, four, and one potential entrapment points were detected for the GON, TON, and LON, respectively. The distances of the point where the GON arose from the lower border of the obliquus capitis inferior muscle and the emerging point of the TON from the C2-C3 vertebrae to the posterior midline were statistically significant in terms of the sides (p = 0.040). Similarly, there was a statistical significance between genders for the distance of the point where the LON arose from the posterior edge of the sternocleidomastoid muscle to the posterior midline (p = 0.002). We believe that with the method developed, the GON, TON, and LON compression points can be easily localized and blocked in diagnosing and treating patients experiencing headaches such as migraines, cervicogenic headaches, occipital neuralgia, and cluster headache.

Objective: Arteries that provide nutrition to the long bones pass through openings called nutrient foramen (NF). The number of studies on NFs of the radius is quite scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the presence, number, direction, and anatomical localization of NFs of the radius. Material and Method: A total of 133 dry adult human radii were investigated in this study. The presence, number, position, and direction of NFs of the radii were determined. The shortest distance of NF to the most proximal point of the radius (DPE), the transverse diameter of the radius at the level of the NF (TD), and the shortest distance of the NF to the most prominent point of the dorsal tubercle (DDT) were measured. Furthermore, the foraminal index (FI) was calculated. Result: A single NF was found in 130 (97.7%) bones, and 3 (2.3%) radii did not have NF. The NFs were most commonly on the anterior surface (80%, 104 bones) and middle 1/3 (78.5%, 102 bones) part of the bones. All NFs were towards the elbow. The DPE, TD, and DDT were meanly 82.72 +/- 11.4 mm, 129.99 +/- 15.41 mm, and 14.6 +/- 1.97 mm, respectively. The average FI was 35.6 +/- 4.64. Conclusion: This paper provides additional information, such as the distance of nutrient foramen to the dorsal tubercle. Our results may help clinicians during applications related to the NF of the radius.