In this study, we use the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method [1] to investigate the collisional fraction of the atmospheres of Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The extent of the collisional atmosphere of the icy moons is still subject to ongoing debate. While Europa’s atmosphere is tenuous and effectively collisionless, the exobase for Ganymede and Callisto is expected to be located above a thin collision-dominated atmospheric layer [2]. In the 2030s, both ESA's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) and NASA's Europa Clipper mission are set to explore Jupiter's icy moons from up close, using high-resolution mass spectrometers to sample their atmospheres. The Neutral gas and Ion Mass spectrometer (NIM) of the Particle Environment Package (PEP) onboard JUICE [3] and the MAss Spectrometer for Planetary EXploration (MASPEX) onboard Europa Clipper [4] will determine the atmospheric composition of the moons and potentially sample plume material on Europa. The collisional fraction of their atmospheres affects the abundances of the various species that will be measured, and hence also the deduction of the underlying surface composition. Therefore, obtaining a comprehensive understanding of atmospheric structures, including the collisional fraction, is imperative for both missions. This knowledge is essential to ensure the correct interpretation of the measured data once it becomes available. The DSMC method is a computation technique, where rarefied gas flows are simulated by tracking the motion of individual particles, including their collisions and interactions, to provide insight into the macroscopic gas dynamics. Therefore, this method is ideal for studying thin atmospheres that transition from being collisional near the surface to ballistic at higher altitudes, such as the atmospheres of the icy Galilean moons. The model [5, 6] used herein includes different physical and chemical processes that create the atmospheres of the icy moons, such as sputtering due to interactions with Jupiter's magnetosphere, the sublimation of surface ice, and photochemical reactions. [1] Bird, G. A. (1994). Molecular gas dynamics and the direct simulation of gas flows.[2] Schlarmann, L., et al. (2024), in preparation.[3] Grasset, O., et al. (2013). Planetary and Space Science, 78, 1-21.[4] Phillips, C. B., and Pappalardo, R. T. (2014). Eos, Transactions AGU, 95(20), 165-167.[5] Carberry Mogan, S. R., et al. (2021). Icarus, 368, 114597.[6] Carberry Mogan, S. R., et al. (2022). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 127(11).

Jupiter’s icy Galilean satellites Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto possess tenuous atmospheres that are mainly sourced from the surface. However, the extent of the collisional atmosphere of the icy moons is still subject to ongoing debate. In this study, we model the atmospheres of the three icy satellites using the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method [1] to locate the exobases at the icy moon atmospheres and to investigate the influences of collisions among the different atmospheric species.Our model [2, 3] includes the main physical and chemical processes that create the atmospheres of the icy moons, such as the sublimation of surface ice (H2O) and the radiolytic production and sputtering of molecular oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2). Furthermore, we include photochemical reactions and electron impacts, that can ionise and dissociate species in the atmosphere. To determine the location of the exobase, we use the Knudsen number (Kn), defined as the ratio of the mean free path (λ) to the scale height (H). The exobase, marking the boundary between collision-dominated and collision-free atmospheric regions, is typically considered to be at Kn = 1. In addition, we compare the results of the collisional DSMC model with a ballistic model, where the particles do not interact with each other, to investigate the influences of collisions on the abundances and escape rates of the included species. In this effort of comparative selenology [4], we find that the exobases of all three icy moon atmospheres are located above the surface (see Figure 1). For Ganymede and Callisto, our model shows that the collisionality is significantly affected by the abundance of sublimated H2O near the subsolar point. In contrast, for Europa, the abundance of recycled O2 results in the exobase being located above the surface, which differs from the assumptions made in previous exospheric models. Furthermore, we find that a collisional atmosphere leads to reduced escape rates for most species, as particles that would have escaped on ballistic trajectories lose their energies via collisions. However, collisions with dissociation products can also significantly increase the escape of heavy species, such as sublimated H2O and recycled O2, that would not be expected to escape in a non-collisional atmosphere, as their thermal velocities are significantly smaller than the escape velocities of the icy moons.Figure 1: Knudsen number as a function of the solar zenith angle and altitude (in km and satellite radii) for Europa (left), Ganymede (middle), and Callisto (right). A solar zenith angle of 0° corresponds to the subsolar point. The exobase (Kn = 1, solid line), and the boundary between the quasi- and fully collisional regime (Kn=0.1, dashed line) are also shown.In the 2030s, both ESA's Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) and NASA's Europa Clipper mission are set to conduct close-up explorations of the three satellites. Equipped with high-resolution mass spectrometers, more specifically the Neutral gas and Ion Mass spectrometer (NIM) aboard JUICE [2] and the MAss Spectrometer for Planetary EXploration (MASPEX) on Europa Clipper [3], they will measure the atmospheric composition. In this study, we show that the collisionality of the icy Galilean moon atmospheres affects the abundances and escape rates of the different species that will be measured, consequently impacting the determination of the moons' underlying surface composition.Acknowledgements:This work has been carried out within the framework of the National Centre of Competence in Research PlanetS supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant 51NF40_205606. The authors acknowledge the financial support of the SNSF. Calculations were performed on UBELIX (http://www.id.unibe.ch/hpc), the HPC cluster at the University of Bern.References:[1] Bird, G. A. (1994). Molecular gas dynamics and the direct simulation of gas flows.[2] Carberry Mogan, S. R., et al. (2021). Icarus, 368, 114597.[3] Carberry Mogan, S. R., et al. (2022). Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, 127(11).[4] Schlarmann, L., et al. (2024), in preparation.[5] Föhn, M., et al. (2021), IEEE Aerospace Conference (50100). IEEE, 1-14.[6] Waite Jr, J. H., et al. (2024). Space Science Reviews, 220.3, 30.

An expedition EMM-Etna to simulate the Lunar and Martian volcanic and soil environment will be carried out at Mount.Etna’s Cratere del Laghetto in Sicily, near Catania Italy by the EuroMoonMars TUDublin and LEAPS ExoMars groups. This scouting campaign intends to train in using instruments to be used on MoonMars landers and rovers, with a perspective of ARCHES DLR telerobotics campaign to be conducted in June 2022, and in preparation for ExoMars rover instruments (PANCAM, CLUPI and spectrometers) science and operations. Figure 1: Lunar Lander and REMMI Rover for Sample AnalysisThe aim of this EMM-Etna expedition is to investigate and analyse the terrain with the use of different scientific instruments. The topography of the landscape will be photographed using a 360° panoramic camera and drone; it will be processed, and a 3D model developed. The terrain will also be investigated using the REMMI Rover, the abilities of the rover to operate and transport equipment will be monitored. This will further develop the knowledge available of the terrain and help future expeditions to identify different landmarks. The use of a Radio Jove Antenna will permit the team to monitor transmissions from both the Sun and Jupiter. This will allow different cosmic events or changes in the celestial objects to be studied and explored. On site a selection of different samples will also be collected and examined using the REMMI Rover. An Ocean Optics UV-Vis-NIR spectrometer will a be operated in order to evaluate the existence of biological compounds and substances within these samples and in the area itself. It is key to understand the molecular makeup of one’s surroundings when in an unknown environment. By analysing samples collected, spectroscopy can be used to identify and determine a diagnostic for each substance. This process will be monitored by a Logitech camera to ensure it is carried put correctly. A selection of photographs will be captured of each sample using a portable optical microscope. This will allow an in-depth analysis of the microscopic structure of each collected sample. The use of all of the instruments mentioned above is key in the investigation and research into the Moon and Martian-like volcanic environment that is Mount Etna.We would also like to thank Prof I. Pagano's team from the University of Catania and Dr A.Wedler's team from DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt for their support in organising this expedition.

The landing site of the ExoMars 2022 mission is Oxia Planum, a basin rich in hydrated minerals located between Mawrth and Ares Vallis. Its clay-rich deposits of Noachian age have been covered by volcanic outflows, that have only recently started to erode away. This makes it more likely that biochemical markers have been preserved as they were shielded from long-term cosmic ray exposure.Martian analogue sites are valuable testing-grounds for both instrumentation and scientific analysis. During the EuroMoonMars Etna campaign, mockups of ExoMars instruments were used to perform scientific analysis on a Martian Analogue site on Mt. Etna.Satellite images are used to identify sites of interest on the slopes of Mt. Etna, mimicking the use of images and data from the MRO CTX, HiRISE, MEX HRSC and the CRISM spectrometer, to characterise the surface of Oxia Planum during the ExoMars Mission.On the ground, Panoramic imaging and wide-angle photographs are used to select sites for close-up study with a mock-up of the Pancam instrument. Pancam is a set of two wide angle cameras for multi-spectral stereoscopic panoramic imaging, and a high resolution camera for colour imaging.On selected sites, geological and biogeochemical markers are identified and characterized using Raman spectroscopy and optical microscopy, mimicking ExoMars’ onboard instruments RLS (Raman Laser spectrometer), and CLUPI (Close-up imager).

In this study, we present preliminary results of modelling the potentially collisional atmosphere of the Jovian satellite Europa using the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) method [1]. In the DSMC method particular gas flows are calculated through the collision mechanics of representative atoms or molecules that are subject to binary collisions to simulate macroscopic gas dynamics.NASA's Europa Clipper mission [2] and ESA's JUpiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) [3] will encounter Europa with flybys in the 2030s to sample the atmosphere of the icy moon using mass spectroscopy. Measurements with the MAss Spectrometer for Planetary EXploration (MASPEX) onboard Europa Clipper and the Neutral gas and Ion Mass spectrometer (NIM) onboard JUICE will determine the composition of Europa's exosphere and, potentially, sample the plume material. From the exosphere measurements, the chemical composition of Europa's surface could be derived, whereas plume measurements would potentially allow conclusions about the chemical conditions of Europa's subsurface ocean.Models of the collision-less exosphere for the icy moon [4, 5] have shown that Europa’s ice-sputtered atmosphere is dominated by O2 near the surface with an extended H2 corona at higher altitudes. Here, we compare the results of these studies with the DSMC model including deeper layers of Europa's collisional atmosphere.[1] Bird, G. A. (1994). Molecular gas dynamics and the direct simulation of gas flows.[2] Phillips, C. B., and Pappalardo, R. T. (2014). Eos, Transactions AGU, 95(20), 165-167.[3] Grasset, O., et al. (2013). Planetary and Space Science, 78, 1-21.[4] Vorburger, A., and Wurz, P. (2018). Icarus, 311, 135-145.[5] Vorburger, A., and Wurz, P. (2021). J. Geophys. Res. Space Phys., 126(9), e2021JA029690.

The EuroMoonMars Etna campaign (EMM-Etna) took place on Mt. Etna in Sicily between the 6th and 11th of July 2021. The scouting campaign was organised by ten students of the International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG) EuroMoonMars program [1-3] in preparation for the DLR ARCHES (Autonomous Robotic Networks to Help Modern Societies) campaign and the ExoMars launch in 2022. During the ARCHES campaign on Mt. Etna in the summer of 2022, a team of robotics engineers will test various moon landing scenarios to show the capabilities of heterogeneous, autonomous, and interconnected robotic systems [4]. For the EMM-Etna campaign, the team simulated the landing of the REMMI Rover [5] on Mt. Etna as a Mars-analogue site, using a 360-degree remote-controlled camera holder to replicate a panoramic camera. Furthermore, samples were collected and analysed using an Ocean Optics UV-Vis-NIR spectrometer, a Field Raman, and a portable microscope. When working with a team of scientists and engineers the planning and organisation of the campaign are vital. Therefore, every crew member had their distinctive role during the mission, starting from being responsible for individual instruments or the outreach during the campaign to roles such as planner and data officer. Additionally, a mission protocol for the operational steps of the landing of the rover in the volcanic environment was implemented to assure smooth operation in the field. References: [1] https://moonbasealliance.com/ilewg [2] https://euromoonmars.space/ [3] H. Reilly et al. "Instruments Operations, Science and Innovation in Expedition Support: EuroMoonMars-Etna campaign 2021", European Planetary Science Congress 2021, online, 13–24 Sep 2021, EPSC2021-848, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc2021-848, 2021. [4] M. J. Schuster et al. "The ARCHES Space-Analogue Demonstration Mission: Towards Heterogeneous Teams of Autonomous Robots for Collaborative Scientific Sampling in Planetary Exploration", IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters 5.4 (2020): 5315-5322. [5] C. Mohan et al. "Rover testing for lunar science and innovation", European Planetary Science Congress 2021, online, 13–24 Sep 2021, EPSC2021-850, https://doi.org/10.5194/epsc2021-850, 2021.

As much is still unknown about the conditions for life on Early Mars, extreme environments on Earth that resemble Early Martian conditions are particularly useful for planetary scientists and astrobiologists to understand Early Mars environments. As biosignatures could be preserved in the Martian mineral record, Mars analogue environments on Earth also provide useful points of reference for measurements gathered by Mars rover missions. One of the best Martian Analogue Environments on Earth is the dry high-altitude desert in the area of the Ojos del Salado volcano in Chile. The Ojos del Salado is the highest point of the Puna de Atacama plateau in the Andes, characterized by extremely dry periglacial conditions, high UV radiation levels, low oxygen pressure, strong winds and the presence of volcanic and hydrothermal activity. High altitude lakes in the area feature polyextremophile microbial ecosystems that are adapted to these unique conditions and which provide a valuable insight into ecosystems that might resemble life on Early Mars. We report research results from Raman spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy and optical microscopy, gathered in-situ during the joint interdisciplinary Universidad de Atacama/LICA UDA/EuroMoonMars field campaign to the Ojos del Salado area in February/March 2022.

EuroMoonMars is an ILEWG initiative including several activities in the space field to facilitate Moon and Mars exploration [1-6]. EMMPOL missions are organized by EMM and AATC, aboard a confined simulator in Poland. The EMMPOL8 (9-16th September 2021) focussed on psychological wellbeing in confinement. During the simulation, biological experiments were also conducted by the crew to analyse the impact of microgravity and different light conditions on the growth of plants and to assess the lunar dust simulant toxicity to various organisms. Here, we present three experiments with a focus on design which were performed by Serena Crotti, Vice-Commander of the mission, in the context of her MSc Thesis research in Integrated Product Design at Politecnico di Milano, under the academic supervision of Professors A. Dominoni, B. Quaquaro and B. Foing. Design for Space is an emerging discipline that applies design principles to the aerospace sector; increasing wellbeing and comfort are the main tasks of designers in this area. As missions get longer, psychophysical wellbeing becomes fundamental [7-9]. The following experiments stem from this context. The Emotion Wall. An emotional monitoring system was tested during the EMMPOL8. It collects psychological data from individuals via a dedicated software; afterwards, it processes them into a visual representation of the crew’s emotional state. This experiment was carried out in collaboration with Brent Reymen and Abdelali Ez Zyn. Testing the system and evaluating its impact on crew dynamics were the main objectives. Real-time psychological data were collected to investigate individuals’ reactions to environmental stressors. This helped keep track of criticalities that can be turned into design opportunities to improve wellbeing. Multi-sensory Scenarios and the Scents Experiment. Multi-sensory Scenarios exploited light, sounds and scents to simulate different environmental settings aboard. Projections recreated shadows cast by hypothetical windows and were accompanied by natural sounds and scents. In the Scents Experiment, astronauts were exposed to olfactory stimulations related to food evoking daily life. These were provided by the company AromaDesign. Stimulating the crew’s senses to provide relief from claustrophobia and monotony was the main aim. Interviews and surveys monitored the crew’s reactions. References. [1] Foing B. et al (2021) LPSC52, 2502 [2] Musilova M. et al (2020) LPSC51, 2893 [3] Perrier I.R. et al (2021) LPSC52, 2562 [4] Foing, B. et al (2021) LPSC52, 2502 [5] Heemskerk, M. et al (2021) LPSC52, 2762 [6] Pouwels, C. et al (2021) EPSC15, 835 [7] Dominoni, A. (2021), “Design of Supporting Systems for Life in Outer Space. A Design Perspective on Space Missions Near Earth and Beyond”, Research for Development, Springer. [8] Dominoni, A., Quaquaro, B., Pappalardo, R. (2018) Space Design Learning. An Innovative Approach of Space Education Through Design, in: Proceedings of IAC 69th, Bremen, 2018. [9] Dominoni, A. (2015), “For Designers with Their Head Beyond the Clouds”, Maggioli, Milan.

Context. The diffuse interstellar bands (DIBs) are absorption features seen in the spectra of astronomical objects that arise in the interstellar medium. Today, more than 500 DIBs have been observed, mostly in the optical and near-infrared wavelengths. The origin of the DIBs is unclear; only ionised buckminsterfullerene, C60+, has been identified as a viable candidate for two strong and three weaker DIBs. Aims. We investigate the correlations between the strengths of the two strongest C60+ DIBs as well as their environmental behaviour. Methods. We analysed measurements of the strengths of the two C60+ DIBs at 9577 and 9633 Å for 26 lines of sight. We used two different methods, including Monte Carlo simulations, to study their correlations and the influence of measurement errors on the correlation coefficients. We examined how the strength of the C60+ DIBs changes as a result of different environmental conditions, as measured by the concentration of H/H2 and the strength of the ambient UV radiation. Results. In contrast to results recently reported by Galazutdinov et al. (2021, AJ, 161, 127), we find a high correlation between the strengths of the C60+ DIBs. We also discovered that the behaviour of the correlated C60+ bands is quite distinct from other DIBs at 5780, 5797, and 6203 Å in different environments.