High-sulfur coal gangue (HSCG) presents substantial environmental hazards owing to its high pyrite content. Bioleaching technology offers economic, efficient, and environmentally friendly potential, yet its performance strongly depends on operating conditions. In this study, sulfur- and iron-oxidizing bacterial consortia were selectively enriched for HSCG bioleaching. The effects of particle size, aeration rate, temperature, and leaching cycle on the short-term cumulative leaching of heavy metals were evaluated, and metagenomic analysis was used to reveal shifts in microbial community structure, functional genes, and metabolic pathways. The results showed that more favorable short-term metal release was obtained at a particle size of 0.15-10 mm and an aeration rate of 0.5 L/min in a cycle of 3-5 days at 25-30 degrees C. The leachate could also be reused for preparing iron red pigment. Biofilm characterization showed clear microbial corrosion on HSCG surfaces with substantial iron- and sulfurbearing components leached. Within the bioleaching system, Acidithiobacillus (9.2%-35.6%), Acidiferrobacter (9.7%-28.3%), and Ferrovum (6.7%-18.7%) were identified as the key genera. The abundances of the functional genes sqr and cyc2 increased substantially, indicating enhanced sulfur and iron metabolism. Notably, Acidithiobacillus was positively correlated with feoAB and cyc2. Additionally, microbial metabolic pathways were mainly associated with stress resistance under acidic and metal-rich conditions. Overall, this study links operating conditions with system pH/ORP responses, representative microbial community features, iron-sulfur metabolism, and heavy metal release in short-term HSCG bioleaching, providing experimental support for process optimization and leachate resource utilization.

While methane oxidation coupled to Cr(VI) reduction has been widely investigated, the functional specialization and division of labor within microbial consortia remain insufficiently understood. In this study, a synthetic microbial community (SynCom) was constructed by controlling methane concentration and chromium load. The maximum Cr(VI) removal load of this system reached 20.63 mg/L/d. The metagenomic assembly genome analysis showed that under hypoxic conditions, Methylocystis (6.30%) was the core microorganism driving methane oxidation. It achieved extracellular electron transfer (EET) through multiheme c-type cytochromes and conductive pili, or jointly with dominant genera such as Hyphomicrobium and Thiobacillus, to couple methane oxidation with Cr(VI) reduction. Integrated multi-omics revealed significant enrichment of differentially expressed proteins involved in quorum sensing and methane metabolism, along with elevated expression of ABC transporter substrate-binding protein and porin. The primary metabolites included N-Methyl-L-Proline, L-Histidine, and Hypaphorin, with L-Glutamine serving as a central node connecting the highest number of pathways in the metabolic network. The inhibition experiments confirmed that inhibiting the methane oxidation would directly reduce the efficiency of Cr(VI) reduction. This study revealed the microbial division of labor and the microscopic process of EET driven by aerobic methanotrophs under hypoxic conditions, and expanded its application potential in bioremediation from the perspective of SynCom. It could be a scientific foundation for pollution control technologies of methane-based biotransformation and utilization.

Sludge from wastewater treatment plants may exacerbate environmental dissemination of last-resort antibiotic resistance genes (LARGs) when applied to land. However, LARG behavior during aerobic sludge fermentation and subsequent soil-plant transfer remains poorly understood. This study specifically targeted LARGs beyond common ARGs and coupled pilot-scale fermentation with bok choy cultivation to resolve their dynamics and compartmentalization. Using metagenomic sequencing with correlation and network analyses, we identified environmental drivers and inferred potential hosts. Optimized fermentation conditions (maintaining >50 °C for 10 days) reduced moisture to 30%, lowered the C/N ratio to 24.7, and achieved germination indices of 85%-90%. Fermentation promoted microbial succession, enhanced metal passivation and organic matter humification, and reduced antibiotic and ARG abundance, with total antibiotic degradation reaching 49.19% in the thermophilic phase. LARG abundance increased by 47.6% in the mesophilic phase due to cell lysis and MGE release, then declined by 9.7% in the thermophilic phase and 47.8% during maturation. Although fermentation stabilized sludge, specific genes (e.g., KPC-22 and poxtA) rebounded, driven by horizontal gene transfer and physicochemical changes. Subsequent planting demonstrated that a 10%-15% sludge application rate optimized bok choy agronomic performance and improved soil antibiotic degradation. Across soil, rhizosphere, and phyllosphere, LARGs exhibited distinct compartmentalization patterns. Network analysis further indicated that LARGs were primarily associated with indigenous soil taxa (e.g., Streptomyces) rather than potential pathogens (e.g., Klebsiella). Consequently, the impact on the core transmission network was minor, suggesting that appropriately fermented sludge application presents a controllable ecological risk and supports its safe utilization under the studied conditions.

Microplastics (MPs) are broadly recognized as ubiquitous contaminants in aquatic environments and pose considerable risks to ecosystems worldwide. Lake sediments act as important sinks for MPs, recording their long-term accumulation and reflecting historical anthropogenic influences. However, the accumulation characteristics and influencing factors of MPs in plateau lake sediments remain poorly understood. This study used sedimentological and geochemical approaches to analyze surface sediments and sediment cores from Caohai Lake on the Yungui Plateau to investigate MP pollution, ecological risks, and the factors governing their accumulation. MP abundance ranged from 200 to 1300 items/kg, with higher levels observed in surface sediments (average of 873 items/kg) than in the sediment core (average of 690 items/kg). MPs were dominated by polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers and polyethylene (PE)/polypropylene (PP) films, with most particles smaller than 0.5 mm. Moreover, detection of high-hazard polymers, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and polystyrene (PS), resulted in high zone-averaged polymer hazard index (PHI >1000) and potential ecological risk index (PERI) values. Meanwhile, the zone-averaged pollution load index (PLI = 2.0) indicated a relatively low overall pollution level. Geochemical analysis of the 0–50 cm sediment core identified four sedimentary units recording historical changes in the sedimentary environment. The vertical distribution of MPs displayed pronounced fluctuations, indicating marked temporal variations in MP accumulation. Integrating sedimentological, geochemical, and socioeconomic information reveals that these variations are jointly driven by fluctuations in external inputs, sedimentary environmental conditions, regional socioeconomic development, and environmental management. These findings provide novel insights into the historical evolution and driving mechanisms of MP accumulation in plateau lake sediments.

Antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) are emerging pollutants that pose a serious threat to public health. Existing evidence indicates that cave environments are also reservoirs of ARGs, but relevant research has not received widespread attention. It is generally believed that even in karst cave environments with little human disturbance, there are diverse ARGs, whose distribution are jointly driven by specific environmental factors and microbial communities. However, this hypothesis has not been confirmed yet. Accordingly, the Shuanghe Cave in Guizhou Province, China was selected to analyze the physical and chemical parameters of the surface-layer mixtures inside the cave. Moreover, ARGs and microbial diversity, potential host bacteria of ARGs, as well as the influence of environmental factors on them were assayed and analyzed using metagenomic technology. Results indicated that 21 ARG types and 728 ARG subtypes were annotated according to the CARD database, with multidrug and macB being the predominant ones. High-risk mobile optrA, tetA and mupA genes were clearly identified. Correlation analysis between ARGs and microorganisms suggested that Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria might serve as key potential hosts and disseminators for multiple ARGs. Redundancy analysis (RDA) and Pearson correlation analysis further showed that SO42− and NO3− were the key environmental factors influencing the composition and distribution of ARGs and microorganisms in the cave. This study confirmed the ecological risks of karst caves as ARGs reservoirs and also provided important insights into the distribution and transmission mechanisms of ARGs in caves.

Phthalate esters (PAEs), widely used plasticizers, have attracted increasing attention due to their persistence and congener-dependent ecological risks in aquatic systems. This study examined Caohai Lake, a representative plateau lake in Guizhou, China, where water, sediment, aquatic plants, and fish were sampled from 20 sites during dry and wet seasons. Six common PAEs (DMP, DEP, DBP, BBP, DEHP, and DNOP) were analyzed for spatial distribution, seasonal variation, and migration characteristics. The mean & sum;6PAE concentrations in water, sediment, with supplementary data from surrounding soils, were 27.17 ng/L, 48.27 & micro;g/kg dw (water and sediment, respectively) during the dry season, increasing to 158.56 ng/L, and 248 & micro;g/kg dw in the wet season; PAE concentrations in surrounding soils were 105.3 & micro;g/kg dw and 248 & micro;g/kg dw in the dry and wet seasons, respectively. DBP and DEHP were the dominant monomers in all media. Aquatic plants showed notable bioaccumulation, while fish exhibited limited accumulation. Ecological risk assessment using risk quotient analysis identified DEHP as the primary concern in both seasons, with DBP posing higher risk in the wet season, whereas DMP and DEP showed negligible risks. Migration analysis suggested that DMP, DEP, and DBP tended to desorb from sediments into overlying water, while DEHP was mainly adsorbed from water to sediments. These findings clarify the multimedia distribution and interfacial migration behaviors of PAEs in a plateau lake, offering scientific support for understanding their ecological risks and environmental fate in enclosed lake systems. (c) 2026 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-ncnd/4.0/).

Nanofiltration (NF) and reverse osmosis (RO) treatment of landfill leachate from MBR effluent will produce refractory leachate concentrates containing high concentrations of humic substances and salts. A NF membrane with the ability to separate organic substances and inorganic salts to prevent the accumulation of humic substances and salts during treatment were prepared through interfacial polymerization (IP), utilizing 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane (Cyclen) with a large spatial structure as the monomer of aqueous-phase and Trimesoyl chloride (TMC) as the oil-phase monomer. Subsequently, Cyclen/TMC membranes were employed to treat landfill leachate derived from the MBR effluent to separate humic substances and inorganic salts. The resulting Cyclen/TMC membranes exhibited good performance and pure-water permeance (P = 31.73 L m- 2 h- 1 bar- 1), low salt rejection (RNaCl = 10.15 %, RMgCl2 = 19.60 %), and a molecular weight cutoff of 269 g/mol. Moreover, they showed separation properties for humic substances and inorganic salts (Rhumic substances = 96.36 %, RSalts = 9.65 %) in landfill leachate MBR effluent. Antifouling and long-term stability tests showed the magnificent operating stability of the Cyclen/TMC membranes. The appropriate negatively charged surface of the membrane contributes to its effective antifouling capability and long-term stability, surpassing those of the NF270 commercial membrane. Cyclen/TMC membranes have the potential for application in landfill leachate treatment, which will promote the advancement of landfill leachate resource management.

The aerobic methane oxidation coupled with denitrification (AME-D) system enables simultaneous nitrogen removal and antibiotics cometabolic degradation, yet the underlying microbial ecological mechanisms remain poorly understood. This work took ofloxacin (OFL) as a typical antibiotic pollutant and established long-term stable sequencing-batch AME-D reactors to explore their nitrogen removal efficiency and OFL degradation sustainability under antibiotic stress. A multi-omics approach combining metagenomics, metaproteomics, and metabolomics was adopted to identify the core degraders and functional helper bacteria, and unravel the synergistic metabolic interactions sustaining the system's performance. Results indicate that the AME-D cometabolic system maintains high-efficiency nitrogen removal capacity and achieves effective OFL degradation under OFL stress. The piperazine ring is the primary reactive site of OFL, undergoing ring cleavage to form intermediate products. Multi-omics results demonstrate that microbial community structure is significantly reshaped by OFL pressure. Aerobic methane-oxidizing bacteria (MOB) are identified as core degraders, which mediate OFL cometabolism via methane monooxygenase (pMMO/sMMO) and supply available electron donors. Denitrifiers and stress-tolerant auxiliary bacteria form synergistic networks by optimizing nitrogen metabolism, activating efflux pumps and regulating antioxidant defenses, which maintains system functional stability under high OFL stress. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) verification confirms that MOB, nitrifiers and denitrifiers form compact spatial interaction structures in sludge, which provide favorable conditions for interspecific substance exchange and electron transfer. This study clarifies the multi-scale functional maintenance mechanism of AME-D cometabolic system, offering theoretical support for the treatment of antibiotic-laden wastewater and ecological risk control of antibiotic resistance.

Iron-bearing minerals are ubiquitous in water, sediments and soil, where their surface chemical properties and redox activity can play an important role in degradation of trace antibiotics. This review systematically summarizes the roles of various iron-bearing minerals in chemical transformation and microbial degradation of antibiotics and reaction mechanisms involved, and refines the critical idea for iron-driven control of antibiotics with trace level in natural environment. Overall, antibiotics removal in the presence of iron-bearing minerals involves combination of adsorption, surface oxidative degradation, photo-induced degradation, Fenton-like reaction and microbial degradation. Adsorption of antibiotics by Fe(III)-minerals involves electrostatic interaction, complexation, H-bonding, π-π interaction and hydrophobic interaction. Adsorbed antibiotics form complexes with Fe(III)-minerals, undergoing electron transfer to generate radical intermediates, subsequently generating final products through hydroxylation, dealkylation, and deamination. Additionally, Fe(III)-minerals can be excited to produce electrons and holes under sunlight and to produce antibiotics-degrading hydroxyl radical through O2 reduction, H2O oxidation and ligand-to-metal charge transfer. Reduced iron minerals can activate oxygen to participate in Fenton-like degradation reactions. Finally, antibiotics are mainly removed by bio-driven Fenton reaction and direct enzyme biodegradation. The presence of iron-bearing minerals can promote antibiotics microbial degradation by providing nutrients for microorganisms or by changing microbial activity and microbial community structure. Existing problems and future research directions are identified. New insights for application of iron-bearing minerals in transformation of antibiotics are proposed. The work aims to suggest new methods and insights for pollution control and remediation of emerging contaminants including trace antibiotics in the natural environment.

With human activities like exploration, geological investigation and tourism, the structure and function of karst cave microbial communities are prone to change. In this study, sediments from seven different spots in the Dushan Tian Cave in Guizhou Province, China were collected. And the structure and potential key metabolic functions of the microbial community were analyzed through metagenomics. The results showed that the structure of the microbial communities was associated with human-impacted environmental factors. Total phosphorus and Sulfide might promote the growth of Gemmatimonadetes_bacterium. However, Sulfide and organic matter might inhibit the growth of Gemmatimonadetes, Gemmatimonadetes_bacterium, Acidobacteria and Candidatus_Rokubacteria. Human activities triggered ecological effects. In terms of the abundance, denitrification genes increased but ammonia oxidation genes decreased in nitrogen metabolism, suggested there was an increasing trend in the potential of denitrification function. The sulfur metabolic potentials mainly involved assimilatory sulfate reduction where sulfates might be accumulated. The potential of carbon metabolism showed a trend towards the decomposition of exogenous carbon. The methane potential had changed. This study revealed the impact of human activities on cave microorganisms and clarified the response mechanism of cave microorganisms under human interference. It provided an important reference for the ecological protection and development and utilization of karst caves.

Anaerobic digestion has revolutionized global organic waste management by transforming diverse feedstocks, such as livestock manure, crop residues, food wastes, and sewage, into renewable biogas and nutrient-rich biogas slurry (BS), significantly reducing life-cycle carbon footprints. BS, abundant in nutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), and functional organic matter (e.g. humic acids), varies widely in composition across feedstocks, and offers substantial potential as liquid biofertilizer. BS is commonly used in agriculture directly, but faces challenges including seasonal demand mismatches, high transportation costs, and ecological risks by pollutants such as heavy metals and antibiotics. To address these issues, advanced membrane-based technologies, including ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), reverse osmosis (RO), forward osmosis (FO), membrane distillation (MD), and electrodialysis (ED), have emerged as cutting-edge solutions for high-value resources enrichment and extraction. This review critically evaluates the latest progress in membrane-based technologies for BS resource recovery, highlighting their important roles and performance. More importantly, technological challenges including membrane fouling and pollutants co-enrichment are thoroughly discussed to propose feasible solutions for further industrialization. Looking ahead, the future of BS resources recovery hinges on system optimization through digital twin and artificial intelligence technologies, coupled with circular economy principles, to complement anaerobic digestion for a low-carbon and resource-efficient waste management.

The combination of mechanical energy and solar energy is considered as an effective strategy to solve energy and environmental problems. Here, we prepare ZnO/(Na0.5Bi0.5)0.94Ba0.06TiO3(ZnO/BNBT-6) heterostructure, which significantly enhances the piezo-photocatalytic degradation performance by the piezoelectric effect induced under the built-in electric field. The catalytic oxidation capacity of the ZnO/BNBT-6 heterostructure was significantly improved, and the reaction rate constant can be up to 0.07335 min-1 under ultrasonic vibration and ultraviolet visible light irradiation, which is much higher than that of photocatalysis and piezocatalysis. This excellent performance occurs because a built-in polarization field is generated inside the BNBT-6 nanorod by ultrasound, which can accelerate effective separation of photogenerated e−-h+ pairs in BNBT-6 and ZnO, therefore, enhancing the activity of the heterojunction. Finally, a possible piezo-photocatalytic degradation mechanism was proposed based on the free radical trapping experiment and experimental results. This study provides a valuable reference for the design of high efficient piezo-photocatalysts.

With the development of society and economy, eutrophication and antibiotics have posed risks to aquatic ecosystems and human health. In this study, magnetic chitosan (MCS) was synthesized via co-precipitation for the adsorption removal of combined pollutants from wastewater. MCS achieved removal efficiencies of 92.0 ​%, 93.1 ​%, and 91.5 ​% for phosphate, norfloxacin, and humic acid, respectively. MCS exhibited a wide pH adaptability, along with easy recovery and stability. Surface morphology, elemental composition, and crystal structure of MCS before and after adsorption were characterized. Various models were employed to fit adsorption kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics to analyze the adsorption mechanisms. The phosphate removal was primarily driven by electrostatic interactions and complexation, while norfloxacin removal depended on indirect complexation with humic acid, leading to co-precipitation. This study offers valuable insights for the removal of various combined pollutants including conventional and emerging pollutants.

Methanotroph could facilitate nitrogen removal during methane oxidation, and promote conversion of organic compounds by producing methane monooxygenase. Co-metabolic effect and mechanism of aerobic methane oxidation on the removal of nitrogen and organic matter from Baijiu wastewater were investigated using an improved denitrifying biological filter. It was found that the average removal efficiency of chemical oxygen demand (COD), total nitrogen (TN) and chroma increased by 17 %, 22 % and 10 % in reactor B with methane compared to reactor A with air only. Three-dimensional fluorescence spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis revealed that methanotroph co-metabolism was accompanied by eliminating nitrogen and organic matter as well as forming alcohol compounds. Metagenomic analyses revealed that Methylocaldum, the dominant genera in Reactor B, exerted a pivotal role in removing nitrogen and organic matter removal by supplying energy and catalysis. Functional genes pmoABC-amoABC could facilitate nitrogen and organic matter removal.

In this study, carbon and sulfur cycles with methane participated in marine sediment were simulated. Microbial community analysis showed that sulfate-dependent anaerobic methane oxidation was driven by syntrophic microflora, including anaerobic methanotrophic archaea (ANME-2), aerobic methanotrophs (Methylococcus and Methylocystis), sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) (Desulfosarcina, Desulfococcus and Desulfovibrio) and sulfur oxidizing bacteria (SOB) (Rhodoferax and Sulfurivermis). This suggested that Methanotrophs, SOB and SRB were compatible in complex microbial communities. Additional nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) increased electron exchange efficiency of these microflora and further facilitated their growth. Methane metabolism in this study involved methane oxidation and methanogenesis, where the resulting electrons were applied into sulfate reduction and oxidation of sulfides or thiosulfates, suggesting existence of an extensive sulfur cycle in this simulated system. Observations could enrich the diversity of known microbe-mediated sulfur transformations, confirm close interaction of methane and sulfur cycles in marine sediment, and benefit future exploration of complex biogeochemical processes in deep-sea environment.

CuFe-LDH/NF catalyst was prepared by using layered double hydroxide (LDH) composite nickel foam (NF) to effectively activate peroxomonosulfate (PMS), thereby promoting the stable degradation of sulfamethoxazole (SMX). The key parameters of the CuFe-LDH/NF/PMS system were comprehensively investigated. Under the optimized conditions of 2 sheets of 16 m2 CuFe-LDH/NF, a concentration of 0.5 mM PMS, and an initial pH of 7, the removal efficiency of SMX reached 98.07 % within 60 min. More importantly, CuFe-LDH/NF exhibited good structural stability during continuous operation, and the degradation rate of SMX only decreased by 9.18 % after 10 cycles. The introduction of NF support effectively reduced metal leaching, thereby significantly reducing the ecological risks caused by metal leaching. Density functional theory (DFT) analysis indicated that the introduction of NF promoted the electron transfer between NF and LDH, thereby regulating its electronic structure and enhancing the stability of the metal in the LDH layer plates. The surface-bound sulfate species (SO4•-) played a predominant role in the degradation of SMX, and the reaction mechanism and degradation pathway of SMX in this system have been elucidated. This study presents a highly efficient, reusable and stable CuFe-LDH/NF/PMS system, which can effectively remove SMX from wastewater.

Oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) possesses a notable ability to amass cadmium (Cd) from soil, rendering it a pivotal species for investigating Cd remediation and safe utilization of Cd-enriched agricultural land. This study combined field experiments and Cd stable isotopes to investigate Cd translocation in soil-oilseed rape systems in a typical Karst region. Results indicate the water-soluble soil fraction is the primary Cd source for plants, with root uptake modulated by rhizosphere exudates. Significant Cd isotope fractionation occurred systematically within the plant: heavier isotopes progressively enriched along the translocation pathway from roots to main stems, branches, leaves, silique husks, and finally seeds. This pattern suggests preferential sequestration of lighter isotopes in vegetative tissues, likely a selfregulation/detoxification mechanism to mitigate Cd toxicity during reproduction. Oilseed rape accumulated relatively high Cd concentrations (1.89-5.45 mg kg⁻¹), with over 85 % retained in the straws and only a small fraction translocated into the edible rapeseed oil, highlighting its potential for the safe utilization of soils with high geological Cd backgrounds. However, the safe use and disposal of straws should be carefully managed.

To address the technical challenges posed by antibiotic wastewater treatment and overcoming the limitations of traditional carbon materials in activated persulfate advanced oxidation technology, this study aimed to develop an efficient, stable, and eco-friendly catalytic material for activated peroxymonosulfate (PMS). Ideally, porous carbon-based composite catalysts can be produced using carbon-rich waste polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as raw material. To improve the catalytic performance and overcome this problem, non-metallic dopants are often used as a modification strategy. This paper presents the fabrication of nitrogen (N) enriched porous carbon (NPC) derived from discarded PET plastics utilizing a molten-salt-assisted (ZnCl2/NaCl) method, with sodium amide (NaNH2) serving as the N source. The NPC-500 sample showcased an abundant porosity and an elevated surface extent, achieving an impressive 90 % removal efficiency for 20 mg/L of tetracycline (TC). This efficiency was ascribed to the combined action of adsorption and catalytic decomposition. Additionally, the NPC-500 demonstrated a broad pH tolerance range of 3-11, robust environmental durability, and exceptional cycling performance. The results of the reactive oxygen species (ROS) quenching experiments, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) signals, electrochemical analyses and in-situ characterizations indicate that the degradation mechanism is primarily governed by non-radical processes, particularly singlet oxygen (1O2), which operates through electron transfer mediated by surface-bound reactive complexes. Furthermore, theoretical analysis shows that the addition of N increases the electrostatic potential and changes the electron density distribution of the doping sites, thereby improving the absorption and stimulation of PMS. In summary, this study proposes a new method for efficient recycling of plastic waste and provides a technical and theoretical perspective for the use of N-rich carbon materials to treat organic wastewater.

Fermented bean products (FBPs) are integral to diverse global culinary traditions, prized for their distinctive flavors, nutritional benefits, and functional properties. Despite their importance, the interplay between microbial fermentation and the quality of FBPs remains incompletely understood, necessitating further investigation. This review examines the key microbial communities involved in the fermentation of various FBPs and explores the application of multi-omics technologies, such as genomics and metabolomics, to elucidate the microbiological mechanisms influencing product quality. It highlights the potential of integrating bioinformatics and machine learning to identify critical fermentation pathways and their impact on the final product. Moreover, the review anticipates the role of emerging smart technologies in enhancing the quality and efficiency of FBPs. By applying multi-omics approaches, it is possible to pinpoint core microbial consortia linked to high-quality FBPs, offering new avenues for engineering synthetic microbial communities. Such strategies may permit more precise control over fermentation processes, optimizing both the safety and consistency of FBPs. Finally, the review outlines future research directions focused on exploiting technological innovations to improve the quality, sustainability, and safety of FBPs.