Estimation of the inventory of carbon in major world ecosystems and of the exchanges with the atmosphere and other major reservoirs has thus been approached in two ways. In the major reservoirs has thus been approached in two ways. In the first approach, development of broad global patterns uses potential vegetation maps, or associates vegetation types with climatic or other environmental factors independent of local disturbance. In the second approach, development of modern regional or stand-type estimates is based on analyses of current vegetation and land-use practices. This method uses updated resource maps of natural vegetation, forestry surveys, agricultural yields, and human and economic as well as geopolitical considerations. Both approaches were applied in the development of the ecosystem map. The personal judgment of experts about ecosystem types, their locations and extent, and likely biomass or carbon in landscape complexes representative of different parts of the world is crucial in either approach.

Mucosal proliferation was studied in biopsies obtained from the ascending colon from four mutation positive members of a hereditary non‐polyposis colorectal cancer family (group I) and compared to subjects with some positive family history of colorectal cancer but lacking the clinical and pathological features of hereditary non‐polyposis colorectal cancer (group II). Labelling indices were derived through immunohistochemical staining of the cell cycle associated nuclear proteins proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and Ki–67. Only perfectly longitudinally sectioned crypts were assessed and good intra‐ and interobserver reproducibility was demonstrated. The labelling indices and proliferative compartment locations were similar in both groups. The mean Ki‐67 derived labelling indices (group I 18.0% and group II 17.5%) were similar to values obtained for normal subjects in other studies. PCNA derived labelling indices (group I 58.5% and group II 57.0%) were high, but probably reflect optimization of staining through methacarn fixation. The negative findings do not fit with most published data but critical appraisal of the literature indicates that they are likely to be correct.

OBJECTIVETo investigate the detection of tissue prostate-specific antigen (PSA) using a monoclonal antibody or polyclonal serum in patients with localized prostate cancer.PATIENTS AND METHODSFifteen samples of prostatic tissue from patients with localized prostate cancer were assessed for PSA using monoclonal antibodies and polyclonal serum. The intensity and area of chromogen precipitation in several microscopic fields was determined using image analysis.RESULTSThere were significant differences in the intensity and distribution of PSA labelling in the tumour between the methods; polyclonal serum was more sensitive in detecting PSA in tissue sections. Notably, there was a focal "possible clonal' pattern of negative labelling with the monoclonal antibody, which contrasted with the positivity of the polyclonal marker.CONCLUSIONSThe loss of PSA expression in some poorly differentiated cancers may represent the loss of specific epitopes rather than loss of the entire protein.

AIMS: To compare the lineage specific distribution of MUC1 and MUC2 mucins in normal colorectal mucosa and adenocarcinoma and to identify pathological correlations. METHODS: Paraffin wax sections from 51 colorectal cancers were examined for the expression of MUC1 and MUC2, non-O-acetyl sialic acid and the carbohydrate epitopes Lex, Ley, sialosyl-Lex, sialosyl-Tn, and Tn using standard histochemical methods. RESULTS: MUC1, Lex and Ley co-localised with columnar cell secretions, whereas MUC2, mild periodic acid Schiff and sialosyl-Tn co-localised with goblet cell mucin in both normal and malignant tissues. Sialosyl-Lex and Tn were associated with both lineages. In normal tissues MUC1, Lex and Ley showed only trace expression by crypt base columnar cells. Cancers could be classified into four phenotypes (MUC2+/MUC1-, MUC2+/MUC1+, MUC2-/MUC1+, MUC2-/MUC1-). Particular phenotypes showed significant correlations with cancer type, lymph node spread and peritumoral lymphocytic infiltration and trends falling short of significance in relation to grade of differentiation and contiguous adenoma. CONCLUSIONS: Classification of colorectal cancer by means of lineage specific function may be relevant to both pathogenesis and prognosis.

Expression of the core blood group structures sialosyl Tn (STn) and Tn is regarded as a colorectal cancer-specific change reflecting truncated synthesis of the oligosaccharide component of goblet cell mucin. The distribution of STn and Tn in normal and malignant epithelium has been studied in detail by a combination of mucin-, lectin-, and immunohistochemistry with and without pretreatment with potassium hydroxide (KOH), neuraminidase, and KOH-neuraminidase. When O-acetylated sialic acid (neuraminidase-resistant) is converted by saponification to non-O-acetylated sialic acid (neuraminidase-sensitive), normal colorectal goblet cells (mainly of the lower two-thirds of crypts) are immunoreactive with the monoclonal antibody TKH2 (specific for STn). This immunoreactivity is abolished by the interposition of neuraminidase, but goblet cells then become immunoreactive with Hb-Tn1 (specific for Tn). While colorectal cancer mucin expresses STn, expression of Tn is not seen in either goblet cell mucin or extracellular material showing the morphological and histochemical characteristics of secretory mucin. Tn expression in cancers is mainly limited to the Golgi zone and in a proportion of cases to cytoplasm and apical membrane (glycocalyx) of columnar cells and inspissated material within lumina. The material reacting with Hb-Tn1 may be upregulated, membrane-associated MUC1 glycoprotein rather than MUC2 or MUC4 goblet cell mucin. The presence of STn and cryptic Tn within normal colorectal goblet cells and the absence of Tn expression within colorectal cancer secretory mucin contradicts the generally accepted concept of cancer-specific incomplete glycoprotein synthesis within these neoplasms.

Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA) binds specifically to N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), one of the 5 sugars contributing to the oligosaccharide component of human colorectal goblet cell mucin. DBA binds to goblet cells of the upper crypt and surface epithelium within the proximal colon and to the majority of goblet cells of the distal large bowel. DBA therefore serves as a marker of colorectal goblet cell differentiation with a distinct proximal to distal gradient effect. Previous reports indicate significant loss of DBA reactivity within morphologically normal colorectal mucosa derived from at-risk members of hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer (HNPCC) families. This finding could not be confirmed in the present study. Reduced binding was a relatively consistent finding in transitional mucosa, hyperplastic polyps and carcinoma, with adenomas displaying a more varied pattern of loss. Reduced binding by DBA may be explained by several mechanisms and may not necessarily reflect loss of GalNAc. The concept that lectins can be used to identify stepwise changes that occur during neoplastic evolution should not be accepted uncritically.

Ulex europaeus agglutinin-1 (UEA-1) binds specifically to alpha-L-fucose, the terminal sugar of blood group substances H-2 and Le(y) the expression of which is confined mainly to the proximal colon. The aim of the study was to determine whether there is neo-expression of alpha-L-fucose in the normal appearing mucosa of the distal bowel in subjects with or at risk of hereditary bowel cancer. UEA-1 binding was investigated by means of a direct lectin-peroxidase technique in tissues derived from patients with familial adenomatous polyposis (9) and affected (16) or at risk of (14) hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer. Control tissues were obtained from normal subjects and patients with sporadic bowel cancer and no family history of the condition. There was increased expression of alpha-L-fucose in some adenomas (mosaic pattern), in most carcinomas (diffuse), in hyperplastic polyps (crypt base), but not in normal appearing mucosa or transitional mucosa (adjacent to carcinoma) in any of the groups of patients examined. In view of the negative findings for normal-appearing mucosa, the suggestion that there is a pre-neoplastic field change in subjects at risk of hereditary bowel cancer may be unfounded.

An anecdotal history of the evolution of satellite remote sensors for making Earth observations in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet spectral regions during the past three decades at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is presented together with an intercomparison of the earlier scanning remote sensors and the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) of the Earth Observing System (EOS) project. Developments in the pre-launch and in-flight radiometric calibration systems and techniques for these satellite remote scanners, sounders and television imagers are highlighted.

Plateaus of Eocene limestone and exposed limestone escarpments, in Egypt and Saudi Arabia respectively, were indicated by cool brightness temperatures T sub B (less than 240 to 265 K) by the Nimbus 5 electrically scanning microwave radiometer (ESMR) over a 2-year period. Nubian sandstone, desert eolian sand and igneous metamorphic rocks were differentiated from these limestone areas by warm T sub B values (more than 265 to 300 K). Cool T sub B values in the form of a V were found over broad areas of the Nile Valley and in the western desert of central Egypt. Similar cool T sub B values were shown over limestone-dolomitic hills of the interior Homocline and the Hadramawt plateau of Saudi Arabia. Nimbus 5 and 6 ESMR T sub B values selectively identified intermediate dense rock types (limestone versus sandstone/granite) in the Lake Nasser region whose thermal inertia ranged from 0.035 to 0.06 cal cm to minus 2 C sec 1/2 to minus one half.

The Electrically Scanned Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) on the Nimbus 5 satellite measures the microwave radiation emitted by the earth and the atmosphere in a wavelength band centered at 1.55 cm. The ESMR scans perpendicularly to the spacecraft suborbital track from 50° left to 50° right in 78 steps every 4 s, producing an image which has a spatial resolution of 25 km at nadir. At these wavelengths, the emissivity of the earth and atmosphere varies considerably more than at infrared wavelengths. Thus the contrast in radiance between land surfaces, which have high emissivities, and ocean surfaces, which have low emissivities, makes continents and islands readily distinguishable. There is a minimum of interference from clouds since most non-raining clouds are virtually transparent at these wavelengths. However, atmospheric moisture does modify the radiation emitted by the surface and when cloud droplets reach precipitable size, they enhance the radiation considerably over surfaces of low emissivity (e.g., over oceans), making it possible to map areas of rainfall as well as regions of heavy cloudiness. In this application the ESMR images are meteorologically useful in determining the extent, structure and, qualitatively, the intensity of rainfall. It is then possible, over oceans, to determine the location of frontal rain, rain/snow boundaries, and the structure of tropical storms. Because of the generally high emissivities of land surfaces and the wide range of values they assume, interpretation of atmospheric parameters over land is not possible at present.

A selected group of 1973 North Pacific Ocean tropical cyclones was studied by using data from the Nimbus 5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR), the Temperature-Humidity Infrared Radiometer (THIR), NOAA-2 and USAF DMSP imageries. From the unique combination of infrared, visible, and microwave data, it was possible during various stages of storm development to differentiate between dense cirrus outflow and rain areas, to identify centers of circulation and areas of low-level moisture, and by the use of a theoretical model to estimate semi-quantitatively areas of light, moderate, and heavy rainfall rates.

The Nimbus 5 meteorological satellite carried aloft a full complement of radiation sensors, the data from which were analyzed and intercompared during orbits 569-570 on 22 January 1973. The electrically scanning microwave radiometer (ESMR) which sensed passive microwave radiation in the 19.35 GHz region, delineated rain areas over the ocean off the U.S. east coast, in good agreement with WSR-57 and FPS-77 radar imagery and permitted the estimation of rainfall rates in this region. Residual ground water in the lower Mississippi Valley, which resulted from abnormal rainfall in previous months, was indicated under clear sky conditions by soil brightness temperature values in the Nimbus 5 ESMR and U.S. Air Force Data Acquisition and Processing Program (DAPP) IR data. The temperature-humidity infrared radiometer showed the height and spatial configuration of frontal clouds along the east coast and outlined the confluence of a polar jet stream with a broad sub-tropical jet stream along the U.S. Gulf Coast. Temperature profiles from three vertical temperature sounders, the infrared temperature profile radiometer (ITPR), the Nimbus E microwave spectrometer (NEMS) and the selective chopper radiometer (SCR) were found to be in good agreement with related radiosonde ascents along orbit 569 from the sub-tropics to the Arctic Circle.

A region of low brightness temperature lying along the Mississippi River from Cairo, Illinois, to Morganza, Louisiana was observed in early Nimbus 5 Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer images. This region, which generally corresponds to an outwash aquifer in the Mississippi Valley, had brightness temperatures, at times as much as 40 K below the surrounding (drier) older uplands. Fluctuations of as much as 30 K were observed during the time interval 15 December 1972 to 28 February 1973. Comparison images taken from the Earth Resources Technology Satellite indicate that the study area is aligned with the Mississippi River floodplain, a region of potentially high soil moisture content. The brightness temperature fluctuations were compared with variations in precipitation and other hydrologic parameters in order to delineate the causative factors.

Two examples of Nimbus high resolution infrared radiometer (HRIR) data processed by a color display enhancement system demonstrate possible meteorological, oceanographic, and geomorphological applications of this technique for geophysical research. A commonly used means of displaying radiation temperatures mapped by the HRIR has been a black and white photofacsimile film strip. However, the human eye can distinguish many more colors than shades of gray, and this characteristic permits an analyst to evaluate quantitatively radiation values mapped in color more readily than in black and white.

ABSTRACT Television and infrared sensing techniques utilized by meteorological satellites pro- vide a very useful tool for oceanographic research. Satellite television pictures of cloud patterns overlying thermally different oceanic boundaries reveal significant features of sea surface temperature distribution. Nimbus 11 High Resolution Infrared Radiometer (HRIR) data which is sensitive in the 3.4 to 4.2 micron window were analyzed over several oceanic regions. Quantitative sea surface temperatures within an accuracy of *2K were derived from nighttime satellite radiance measurements in the absence of clouds. Comparisons with observations from low flying radiometer-equipped aircraft confirmed good absolute sea surface temperature measure- ments from the satellite radiometer if 3 to 4°K corrections for atmospheric attenuation and other losses were applied. Sea surface temperature discontinuities such as the North Wall of the Gulf Stream have been located consistently within 10 kilometers the posi- tions indicated by the airplane radiation data. With present techniques, primarily de- signed for meteorological purposes, the Gulf Stream boundary has been seen,