As legume crops fix nitrogen (N) from the atmosphere, there is concern that soil residual N from legumes grown in rotation with malting barley may result in unacceptably high protein content and have negative effects on quality. However, little research has been conducted to investigate this. Field pea, lentil, faba bean [ as seed or as a green manure (GM) crop], canola, and wheat were grown in 2009, canola in 2010, and malting barley in 2011. The objective was to determine the effects of crops grown in 2009 on the quality of barley grown in 2011. Crops were direct-seeded at Lacombe (Alberta), Swift Current (Saskatchewan), and Brandon (Manitoba). Fertilizer N (urea) was applied in 2010 and 2011 at 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 kg ha(-1). The legumes had few negative effects on barley quality compared with canola or wheat. Exceptions occurred at Lacombe where the lentil and faba bean GM crops increased protein and decreased kernel plumpness. This was not evident at other locations. Increasing N fertilizer rate negatively affected almost all malt quality parameters at all locations. The results indicate that growing legume crops prior to malting barley is less likely to reduce malting barley quality than applying fertilizer N.

A western Canada field study investigated the effects of seeding date and rate on malting barley quality. Seeding date had little effect on quality. Increasing the seeding rate up to 300 seeds m(-2) resulted in higher germination and Kolbach indices, lower beta-glucan, and better endosperm modification without compromising malt extract.

Profitable malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) production systems are required to reverse the decline in area seeded to malting barley in western Canada. Systems that could increase the profitability of growing malting barley considered the previous crop, nitrogen (N) rate, and fungicide application. The net return (NR) and risk for these systems were computed from western Canada field data. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the impact of systems on NR over 21 site-years of field data. Risk was evaluated with a stochastic simulation model. NR was higher and risk lower for malting barley when the preceding crop was field pea (Pisum sativum L.), when fungicide was applied at the flag leaf stage for leaf disease control, and when N was 50% of the recommended N rate. Therefore, malting barley should be grown on field pea stubble at a lower N rate, with fungicide applied when there are leaf diseases.

Barley is a multipurpose crop with a global trade averaging 20 million tons annually. Marketing of barley consists of a series of activities that move grain from production to its end use. Marketing is facilitated through the use of standards and grades that allow buyers and sellers to agree on the quality of barley to be delivered. The determination of the overall value of barley is determined by evaluating a set of characteristics that are directly related to the quality for a particular end use and that can vary depending on the country of origin and needs of the final customer.

O'Donovan, J. T., Anbessa, Y., Grant, C. A., Macleod, A. L., Edney, M. J., Izydorczyk, M. S., Turkington, T. K., Juskiw, P. E., Lafond, G. P., May, W. E., Harker, K. N., Johnson, E. N., Beres, B. L., McAllister, T. A., Smith, E. G. and Chapman, W. 2015. Relative responses of new malting barley cultivars to increasing nitrogen rates in western Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 95: 831–839. Only about 25% of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) is selected for malting annually in western Canada due to quality issues. While nitrogen (N) fertilization can increase yield, it can also impair quality by increasing protein to unacceptable levels. The objective of this study was to determine the responses of relatively new malting barley cultivars (Bentley, Major, CDC Meredith, and Merit 57) to increasing N rates compared to the response of AC Metcalfe, the most commonly grown malting cultivar. Experiments were conducted at seven locations in western Canada in 2010, 2011 and 2012. Nitrogen was banded at seeding at 0, 30, 60, 90, or 120 kg ha−1. All the new varieties produced higher yield (5 to 11%) than AC Metcalfe. Barley kernel yield and protein concentration increased with N rate. However, Merit 57, CDC Meredith and Bentley produced significantly lower protein concentration in response to N than AC Metcalfe and Major. The newer cultivars displayed higher N utilization efficiency than AC Metcalfe, possibly due to partitioning proportionally more N into leaf chlorophyll development. The higher leaf chlorophyll content may have enabled increased photosynthesis and a more efficient utilization of N for grain formation. Bentley produced the least tillers and had the highest kernel plumpness, while Merit 57 had the lowest kernel plumpness. CDC Meredith lodged most followed by Merit 57, while Major and Bentley lodged least, especially at the higher N rates. Merit 57 and CDC Meredith took longer to mature than the other cultivars but yielded well at relatively short growing season locations.

Two malting barley varieties, AC Metcalfe and CDC Copeland, were grown at seven sites in Canada with varying seeding rates (SR; 200 and 400 seeds/m(2)) and nitrogen fertilization rates (NR; 0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 kg/ha) and were assessed for variation in chemical composition, gas production (GP), and dry matter digestibility (DMD) after 24 h of batch culture. The variety affected (P<0.01) the crude protein (CP) content of malting barley grain and interacted with SR or NR on DMD. The increase in NR quadratically increased (P<0.01) CP and fiber content but linearly (P<0.01) decreased starch content of malting barley grain. Variety, SR, and NR had limited impact on in vitro GP and DMD. This study showed substantial variation in CP content and DMD among samples and that the chemical composition of malting barley grain and its potential feed value could be altered by NR. Crown Copyright (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ding, S., Oba, M., Swift, M. L., Edney, M., O'Donovan, J. T., McAllister, T. A. and Yang, W. Z. 2015. Short Communication: The effect of seed hardness and malting characteristics on in situ dry matter digestibility of barley grain in beef heifers. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 95: 299–303. An in situ study was conducted to evaluate the relationship between ruminal dry matter digestibility (DMD) and seed hardness or malting characteristics of barley grain. Samples were selected for low and high values of seed hardness index (53 vs. 65; N = 18), beta-glucan content in wort (122 vs. 316 ppm; N = 18), diastatic power (146 vs. 203°L; N = 18), and friability (46 vs. 81%; N = 18) in malt, and incubated in the rumen of three beef heifers for 4, 12 and 48 h. In situ DMD did not vary with beta-glucan concentration or friability. However, barley grain with low seed hardness had lower (P = 0.02) in situ DMD than those with high seed hardness after 4 h of incubation. The barley samples with low diastatic power also had (P = 0.02) higher DMD than with high diastatic power after 4 h, a trend (P = 0.07) that continued after 12 h of incubation. Seed hardness and malting characteristics may have the potential to predict DMD of barley grain in the rumen. However, observed differences in in situ DMD were relatively minor, and we did not detect a relationship between malting characteristics and in situ DMD at longer incubation times. This suggests that the identified grain physical and malt parameters may impact the rate, but not the extent of barley grain digestion in the rumen.

The phenomenon of premature yeast flocculation (PYF) is suspected to be caused (at least in part) due to fungal infection of barley. This study reports on an ongoing investigation that has identified a link between fungal pathogens and PYF behavior. Two varieties of barley, AC Metcalfe and CDC Bold, were exposed to each of three common barley fungal pathogens (Pyrenophora teres, Cochliobolus sativus, or Fusarium graminearum) and evaluated for PYF behavior during fermentation. Barley was infected in the field between flowering and grain maturation. Each sample was micro-malted, mashed, and fermented using a moderately flocculent yeast strain (SMA). Fermentations were performed using the ASBC "Miniature Fermentation" assay (ASBC Yeast-14) developed to detect PYF and assess fermentability or yeast strain performance. In order to detect evidence of PYF behavior, the absorbance at 600 mu of fermenting wort was used to assess yeast in suspension (turbidity). When infected with C. sativus and F. graminearum, the turbidity profile differed significantly (P < 0.01) between control and infected samples for both varieties of barley malt. The nature of the disparity was indicative of PYF behavior. Among malts that exhibited PYF, excess FAN was also observed. This is the first report demonstrating PYF behavior resulting from infection with these pathogens.

Edney, M. J., MacLeod, A. L. and LaBerge, D. E. 2014. Evolution of a quality testing program for improving malting barley in Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 94: 535–544. The quality of Canadian malting barley has continually improved since malt barley was exported in the late 1800s. Improvements were linked to a dynamic evaluation system that evolved with a better understanding of malting biochemistry and as suitable methods were developed. Methods became more accurate and more specific in their ability to define quality. They progressed from sensory evaluation, to surmising malt quality from barley protein levels, to the first micro-maltings followed by automated laboratory-scale maltings. Malt quality analysis started simply with malt extract and diastatic power followed by wort protein. As the necessity for cell wall breakdown became better understood, analyses like wort viscosity, fine/coarse grind extract differences and wort β-glucan were adopted. A continuum of cultivars were released in Canada, based on this evaluation system, starting with the six-rowed releases OAC 21, then Montcalm and Bonanza, followed by the two-rowed releases Betzes, Klages, Harrington and AC Metcalfe. Release of future cultivars will depend on an evolving evaluation system that could include; barley homogeneity, specific starch-degrading enzymes, individual amino acids and specific traits such as low lipoxygenase and low phytic acid barley. The result will be development and release of cultivars with better defined quality that can fill specialized niches in the malting and brewing industries of the future.

ABSTRACTRapid onset of germination in Canadian malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) facilitates production of good quality malt but predisposes barley to preharvest sprouting (PHS). Dormancy can be bred into barley to avoid PHS but some dormancy genes negate the potential for the “Canadian‐type” malt quality associated with a rapid start to germination. The microsatellite marker, GMS001, identified lines with PHS resistance and “Canadian‐type” malt quality in a cross between an Australian cultivar, Baudin, with PHS resistance, and a Canadian malt barley breeding line, TR253, without PHS resistance. The resulting population was grown at three sites over 2 yr with select site/years malted and analyzed for quality. Rapid visco analysis indicated PHS in some barley lines with as little as 11 mm of rain near harvest. The rapid visco analysis results substantiated the importance of the marker on chromosome 5H as breeding lines with the Baudin allele were less susceptible to sprouting, although they exhibited variable malt quality. Lines with the TR253 allele were PHS susceptible but had better and more consistent malt quality. Among the lines with the Baudin allele, five with PHS resistance and consistently good malt quality were identified. Among the lines with the TR253 allele, one showed good PHS resistance and the desirable “Canadian‐type” malt quality. These lines could serve as potential parents of future genotypes combining PHS resistance with good “Canadian‐type” malting potential.

Turkington, T. K., O'Donovan, J. T., Edney, M. J., Juskiw, P. E., McKenzie, R. H., Harker, K. N., Clayton, G. W., Xi, K., Lafond, G. P., Irvine, R. B., Brandt, S., Johnson, E. N., May, W. E. and Smith, E. 2012. Effect of crop residue, nitrogen rate and fungicide application on malting barley productivity, quality, and foliar disease severity. Can. J. Plant Sci. 92: 577–588. The productivity and quality of the malting barley cultivar AC Metcalfe and leaf disease severity were evaluated under three residue types [barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), canola (Brassica napus L.), field pea (Pisum sativum L.)], two nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates (50 or 100% of soil test recommendation for N), and two fungicide treatments (no fungicide or fungicide applied) at seven sites across western Canada from 2006 to 2009. Residue type had a significant effect on leaf disease severity, which was increased when barley was the previous crop compared with canola and field peas. In general, emergence, head counts, grain yield, kernel weight, test weight, kernel plumpness were lowest for barley grown on barley residue compared with canola and field pea residue. Fungicide application reduced leaf disease severity and increased yield, kernel weight, test weight, and kernel plumpness, while decreasing dockage and thins. However, the magnitude of the impact of fungicide on one or more of these parameters was lower compared with planting barley on field pea or canola residue. Overall, increasing the N rate from 50 to 100% had no effect on leaf disease levels and only increased yields slightly compared with not planting barley on barley residue. However, the 100% rate of N did significantly increase grain protein levels. In contrast, planting barley on field pea residue did not result in a consistent increase in grain protein.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of agronomic practices on net return (NR) risk for malting barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) production. This study used data from two field experiments conducted from 2005 to 2008 at eight rainfed locations in western Canada. The first part of this study included 30 production strategies of barley type, seeding rate, and N rate for four regions. The second part of this study included 10 production strategies of seeding date and seeding rate for four regions. A stochastic simulation model was specified to compute the NR. Yield, protein, plumpness, and price were random in the model, drawn from multivariate distributions based on field data and historical price data. The malting cultivar CDC Copeland had higher NR than AC Metcalfe or feed barley. Seeding early at a rate of 200 to 300 seeds m−2 had higher NR than late seeding or higher seeding rates. A fertilizer rate of 60 to 90 kg N ha−1 had higher NR. A producer with high risk aversion preferred strategies that were less risky including: less N fertilizer, growing feed barley in regions that have high protein and smaller price premiums for malting, and seeding later.

BACKGROUND:Crop management tools have been shown to affect barley kernel size and grain protein content, but the direct effect on malt quality is not well understood. The present study investigated the effect of seeding rate, nitrogen fertilisation and cultivar on malt quality.RESULTS:Higher seeding rates produced barley with less grain protein and smaller, more uniformly sized kernels. The small, uniformly sized kernels modified more completely, leading to malt with higher extract and lower wort β-glucan than malt from low-seeding-rate barley. Increasing rates of nitrogen fertilisation caused grain protein levels to increase, which limited endosperm modification and reduced malt extract levels. AC Metcalfe showed better modification and higher malt extract than CDC Copeland, but CDC Copeland had better protein modification at higher fertilisation rates, which resulted in less reduction of malt extract as nitrogen rate increased.CONCLUSION:Higher seeding rates reduced kernel size and grain protein levels without compromising malt extract owing to better endosperm modification of the more uniformly sized kernels. Negative effects of higher nitrogen rates on malt quality can be reduced through development of cultivars with improved ability to modify protein during malting.

O'Donovan, J. T., Turkington, T. K., Edney, M. J., Juskiw, P. E., McKenzie, R. H., Harker, K. N., Clayton, G. W., Lafond, G. P., Grant, C. A., Brandt, S., Johnson, E. N., May, W. E. and Smith, E. 2012. Effect of seeding date and seeding rate on malting barley production in western Canada. Can. J. Plant Sci. 92: 321–330. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) growers in western Canada often have difficulty achieving malting grade. This is usually due to unfavourable climatic conditions, but sub-optimal agronomic practices may also be a factor. Field experiments were conducted in 2006, 2007 and 2008 at eight locations in western Canada (24 site-years) to evaluate the effects of seeding date (relatively early and late) and seeding rate (100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 seeds m−2) on AC Metcalfe barley yield and malt quality parameters. Delayed seeding often resulted in negative effects including increased protein concentration, decreased kernel plumpness and yield. However, at 6 site-years, higher yields occurred at the later seeding date. 300 seeds m−2 was usually optimal; maintained or improved yield, decreased protein concentration, increased kernel uniformity and time to seed maturity, and decreased tillering. In most cases, seeding at more than 300 seeds m−2 did not result in an improved outcome, and there was a risk of reduced yield and kernel plumpness at rates above this level. A multivariate analysis indicated that relatively low barley plant densities were associated primarily with northern locations with low soil pH.

Brewery fermentations require sufficient yeast growth during fermentation to achieve the timelines and beer quality expected. It is only possible to obtain the necessary growth when yeast are provided with an adequate supply of all nutrients, including amino acids, minerals, and fermentable sugars. However, a broth made from 100% high-maltose syrup (HMS), and thus containing no micronutrients, showed excellent fermentability under standard laboratory conditions (Congress wort specific gravity, high pitching rates, and continuous stirring), indicating no requirement for micronutrients under these conditions. The aim of this study was to develop a lab-scale fermentation test, based on reduced pitching rates and use of adjunct sugars, that would indicate the need for micronutrients during fermentation. Malts from three barley varieties and of varying quality were used to investigate the effectiveness of the test. Amino acid levels in worts and fermented worts were measured using ultra-performance liquid chromatography. Effects of amino acids on fermentability were most apparent when a pitching rate of 0.45 g of compressed yeast per 100 mL of broth and a broth with a 40:60 ratio of HMS to Congress wort were used. At least 1,000 mg of amino acids per L was necessary to completely ferment an 8.5 degrees P broth. Individual amino acids were absorbed in the order expected, with the exception of glutamine, a type A amino acid, which was absorbed at a slower rate than the type B amino acids histidine and methionine. The broth method also found that proline was absorbed even under standard fermentation conditions once other amino acids had been depleted.

Fourteen samples consisting of three cultivars of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), grown commercially in southern Manitoba in 1994, were examined for levels of Fusarium species and seven fusarium trichothecene mycotoxins: deoxynivalenol (DON), diacetoxyscirpenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol (15ADON), fusarenone-X, HT-2 toxin, neosolaniol and T-2 toxin. Four fractions from each sample were analysed. These consisted of kernels with the hulls still attached, kernels whose hulls had been removed at harvest, kernels that had been dehulled in the laboratory using a deawner, and kernels that had been pearled in the laboratory to 60% of their original weight. A composite sample of the hulls, obtained from the laboratory dehulling, was also tested. Mycotoxins were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. DON and 15ADON were the only trichothecenes detected in this study. The greatest numbers of propagules of Fusarium spp, and the highest concentrations of DON and 15ADON were found in the hulls. The average concentrations of F. graminearum Schwabe and DON in barley were reduced: 90 and 49%, respectively, as a consequence of laboratory dehulling; 95 and 59%, respectively, as a result of dehulling during harvest; and 99 and 86%, respectively, as a result of pearling. Results suggest that growing hulless cultivars shows promise for management of mycotoxin problems associated with FHB.

J. Inst. Brew. 117(3), 401-410, 2011Brewery fermentations require continuous yeast growth to efficiently convert fermentable sugars to ethanol. Yeast growth is dependent on an adequate supply of nutrients, including minerals. Minerals are generally assured in the brewery with addition of nutrient supplements but reduced phytate barley malts could reduce the need for supplements. The present study used bulked segregant analysis to determine effects of the reduced phytate trait in barley on field performance, barley quality, malting quality and brewing performance. Two bulks from a doubled haploid population, along with a series of normal and reduced phytate controls, were grown at 3 to 5 western Canadian sites in 2006, 2007 and 2008. The normal and reduced phytate barley bulks had similar yields, but the reduced phytate barley had significantly lower test weight. Rates of endosperm modification were similar between the two phytate types, although, reduced phytate malt was significantly more friable. Malt extract and alpha-amylase levels were significantly lower in the reduced phytate bulk. Zinc and magnesium levels were significantly higher in reduced phytate worts and these worts produced better yeast growth as indicated by greater amino acid use during fermentation. Brewing performance tended to be better with reduced phytate worts, but not consistently so, likely due to the lower levels of malt extract and alpha-amylase. Results supported the incorporation of the reduced phytate trait into malting barley varieties, but with attention to breeding for improved test weight and levels of alpha-amylase.

The malting barley ( Hordeum vulgare L.) industry is often challenged by the availability of sufficient volume and quality to meet demand. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of agronomic practices on grain uniformity, protein concentration, yield, and yield components. Field experiments were conducted from 2005 to 2008 at eight rain‐fed locations in western Canada. The effects of two seeding rates (200 and 400 seeds m −2 ) and five N (0, 30, 60, 90, and 120 kg ha −1 ) rates on two two‐row barley cultivars (‘AC Metcalfe’ and ‘CDC Copeland’) were determined. Each experiment was conducted for 3 yr at each location (24 environments). CDC Copeland displayed some advantages over AC Metcalfe including higher grain yield, lower protein and more uniform kernels. For both cultivars, kernel weight, and plumpness were lower at the higher seeding rate; protein was also lower, maturity was earlier and kernels were more uniform. With increasing N rate, barley yield, kernel weight, and tillers plant −1 increased, but days to seed maturity and protein concentration also increased, and kernel plumpness and seed uniformity decreased. The increase in protein was less pronounced with CDC Copeland suggesting that there may be less risk with this cultivar of unacceptable protein levels at relatively high N rates. At many environments barley plant stand decreased while lodging increased with increasing N rates. To improve the likelihood that barley will be acceptable for malting growers should select low‐protein varieties, seed at relatively high rates and limit N application.

Zijlstra, R. T., Swift, M. L., Wang, L. F., Scott, T. A. and Edney, M. J. 2011. SHORT COMMUNICATION: Near infrared reflectance spectroscopy accurately predicts the digestible energy content of barley for pigs. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 91: 301-304. Density, chicken apparent metabolizable energy (AME), and near infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) were tested to predict the widely varying swine digestible energy (DE) content of barley. The DE content of 39 barley samples ranged from 2686 to 3163 kcal kg(-1) (90% DM) in grower pigs. The R(2) between DE content and density (0.14) and broiler chicken AME content (0.18 and 0.56, without and with enzyme, respectively) was low. In contrast, the coefficient of determination to predict swine DE content for ground barley samples using NIRS was respectable for external validation (R(2) = 0.74) and internal cross validation (1-VR = 0.79), but more robust calibrations should be developed for commercial application.