Cereal crops consume more freshwater than any other category of agricultural production, yet no recent review has quantitatively integrated agronomic, genetic, and digital water-smart innovations across the seven cereals most relevant to global food security: wheat (Triticum spp.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), maize (Zea mays L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L.] Moench), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R.Br.), and finger millet (Eleusine coracana [L.] Gaertn.). This narrative review addresses that gap by synthesizing 110 studies — retrieved through a PRISMA-inspired selection workflow and appraised on a four-dimensional quality rubric — across five intervention domains: deficit irrigation, soil-moisture conservation, drought-resilient varieties, precision agriculture and digital irrigation, and integrated water management. Quantitative pooled findings indicate that mild alternate wetting and drying in rice reduces irrigation water by ~23% with negligible yield penalty, whereas severe drying incurs a ~23% yield loss; deficit irrigation in wheat improves water productivity by ~7% but reduces yield by ~16%; and straw mulching raises cereal yields by 13–22% (pooled). IoT-based scheduling delivers meaningful but heterogeneous irrigation-water savings relative to calendar-based practice, although the cereal-specific evidence base remains thin relative to horticultural applications. The review’s principal contribution is the Genetics × Agronomy × Digital (G×A×D) integration framework, which maps these three intervention families onto the soil–plant–atmosphere–institution continuum and makes their combinatorial opportunities and institutional prerequisites explicit. The central critical conclusion is that the binding constraint on water-smart cereal production has shifted from the technical feasibility of individual interventions to the institutional, financial, and governance capacity required to combine them equitably, particularly in smallholder systems. Evidence for finger millet and for rainfed smallholder systems in sub-Saharan Africa remains notably thin and represents a priority gap.

This study presents the first integrated multi-compartment assessment linking soil heavy- metal contamination and satellite-derived tropospheric air pollution in Lebanon’s Bekaa Valley. Six metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn) were measured in 295 agricultural topsoils using DTPA extraction—which targets the labile, bioavailable pool most relevant to food-chain transfer in calcareous soils—and were compared with Sentinel-5P TROPOMI vertical columns of SO2, NO2 and HCHO extracted at point, 1000 m and 5000 m scales. Chromium was the dominant element, and composite pollution indices indicated overall good but transitional soil quality, with a majority of sites at warning level. Principal component analysis, spatial autocorrelation and land-use analysis converged on three plausible source groupings—predominantly geogenic (Cr, Ni), localized anthropogenic (Cd, Pb) and agricultural (Cu)—although, in the absence of isotopic or other direct source tracing, these assignments remain indicative rather than confirmed. Soil metals and atmospheric columns were largely uncorrelated (|r| < 0.3 for 17 of 18 pairs); this decoupling is consistent with the contrasting temporal integration and spatial support of the two compartments rather than with a single shared pathway. Multi-scale analysis supported a parsimonious dual-scale (point + 5000 m) sampling framework. The study offers a transferable assessment framework for other Mediterranean regions and underscores the need for locally calibrated, total-metal soil background values. Because these indices and threshold comparisons are computed from DTPA-extractable concentrations, they serve here as one-directional, bioavailability-based screening tools rather than regulatory determinations: an exceedance conservatively flags a site for confirmatory total-metal analysis, whereas a non-exceedance does not establish compliance.

Processing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a key crop in the Mediterranean, where farmers are increasingly required to balance high yields with reduced inputs. In response to the EU Farm to Fork strategy, which targets a 20% reduction in fertilizer use by 2030, the aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of algae-based biostimulants to sustain crop performance under reduced nitrogen (N) supply. In this context, we carried out a two-year field trial (2023–2024) in Acerra, Southern Italy testing three N levels (100%, 90% and 80% of the optimal dose in 2023; 100%, 80% and 70% in 2024) and two commercial formulations (BIO1: Auximar + Procalcium; BIO2: Enerleaf + Pentacalcium), applied as foliar sprays. Reducing N dose led to a proportional decline in yield compared to the optimal dose (–16% in 2023, mean value of N80% and N90% and –30% in 2024 with N70%). In both years, all biostimulants increased marketable yield (+21% and +36%), mainly by raising fruit number. The N80% treatment combined with biostimulants maintained yields comparable to the full nitrogen dose, pointing to a more efficient use of fertilizer. Biostimulant treatments enhanced fruit firmness (+19% in 2023) and soluble solids total (+14% and +10% in 2023 and 2024, respectively), and boosted nutritional parameters such as ascorbic acid (12% in 2023 and 15% in 2024) and carotenoids. Lycopene was not influenced by biostimulants, but showed instead a strong dependence on seasonal conditions and N dose, with higher values recorded in 2024. Although main effects of nitrogen and biostimulants were largely independent, significant year × nitrogen × biostimulant interactions were detected for fruit nitrogen and nutraceutical compounds. The results indicate that algae-based products with a moderate (≥20%) N reduction appears to be a practical way to cut fertilizer inputs while safeguarding both yield and fruit quality in processing tomato.

Agriculture consumes 70% of global freshwater, and rising food demand by 2050 will further strain these resources. Mulching can improve water productivity (WP) by reducing evaporation and stabilizing the soil microclimate. This study evaluated the effects of biodegradable mulch on irrigation efficiency, yield, and quality of processing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) under Mediterranean open-field conditions. Trial was conducted over two consecutive spring–summer seasons (2024–2025), at Portici, Southern Italy. Three mulching treatments: a paper mulch (PPR) and two biodegradable films (BM1, starch-polymer blend; BM2, copolyester), were compared with bare soil (BS, control). Soil volumetric water content and soil temperature were monitored to schedule irrigation and restore field capacity. Mulching, regardless of type, increased commercial yield in both years: +48% in 2024 and +24% in 2025 compared to BS, mainly due to higher fruit number. Mulched fruits showed greater firmness and higher °Brix values (+3–9%), although the latter was statistically significant only in the second year. Biodegradable films significantly increased ascorbic acid content (+46% vs. PPR), while PPR, due to its cooling effect, promoted a statistically significant lycopene (+52%) and carotenoids (+24%) content. Nitrogen content of fruits was lower under PPR (−26% in 2024; −3.6% in 2025). Moreover, mulching reduced water volumes and improved WPc, particularly in 2024 (PPR: 83.78 vs. BS: 48.80 kg m-3). Despite lower overall WPc in 2025, mulched plots maintained more stable efficiency. Biodegradable mulches could represent a sustainable alternative to polyethylene for Mediterranean processing tomato cultivation.

Despite the European Union establishing an ambitious legislative framework—including the recent Soil Monitoring Law—and making significant scientific progress in understanding soil health, 60%–70% of EU soils remain unhealthy. This persistence of degradation highlights a potential disconnect between policy ambition and reality. This study–conducted within the EU “Benchmarks” project - investigates whether specific knowledge gaps are hindering the implementation of sustainable soil management (SSM) and the delivery of ecosystem services. We conducted a quantitative stakeholder perception analysis using a structured questionnaire based on the 13 action areas of the EU Soil Strategy for 2030. Data were collected from 79 experts across various sectors (Research, Government, NGOs, Education) using a purposive sampling strategy to identify soil knowledge gaps and prioritize intervention points based on the perceived urgency of knowledge and implementation failures. The analysis reveals a “Governance-Science Gap”. While stakeholders report high confidence in technical monitoring tools (e.g., LUCAS, Copernicus), they identify critical failures in integrating ecosystem services into political decision-making, defining actionable SSM practices and securing adequate funding. Disaggregated data show distinct perceptual disconnects; NGOs prioritize practical actions and funding, whereas researchers focus on theoretical gaps in climate and biodiversity. Comparing these findings with other EU initiatives (Soil Mission Support (SMS) and SOLO projects), we conclude that the primary barrier to soil health is not a lack of fundamental data, but a “Technical-Institutional Mismatch”. Future Research and Innovation (R&I) must therefore shift focus from data generation (Knowledge Development Gaps) to governance (e.g. research in developing approaches and tools to support informed decision), economic incentives, and educational frameworks (Knowledge Gaps) to translate science into effective stewardship. These exploratory findings warrant confirmation through larger-scale surveys but offer an evidence-based, stakeholder-driven diagnosis of priority areas for EU soil policy implementation.

Wheat, a staple crop, faces numerous challenges due to climate change and the increasing demand for sustainable practices. Biostimulants, which enhance plant growth and resilience, have gained attention for their potential to improve wheat productivity in an environment-friendly manner. This study presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of field-based research on wheat's response to biostimulants under field conditions from 2000 to 2024. Analyzing 222 studies, the bibliometric analysis reveals a significant rise in research publications on biostimulants, with an annual growth rate of 15.6%. Asia leads with the largest share of publications (59.4%), followed by Europe (18.1%) and Africa (11.6%). North America, South America and Oceania have fewer contributions. Additionally, research institutions in Pakistan, India and Egypt rank as the most productive on this topic. Saudi Arabia stands out with the highest percentage of international collaboration, at 91.7% between countries and 100% among institutions. The findings reveal that biostimulants significantly improve wheat's ability to withstand abiotic stress, optimize nutrient uptake, and enhance overall plant health. Research is transitioning from traditional organic methods and microbial inoculants to advanced biostimulant formulations, improved nutrient management, and reduced environmental impact. However, gaps remain, particularly in understanding the combined effects of multiple biostimulants and their long-term impact on wheat and soil health. This synthesis of research trends lays the groundwork for advancing sustainable wheat production, supporting food security and agricultural resilience amidst environmental challenges.

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivation practices underwent significant transformation in recent decades due to advancements in scientific knowledge and the need for sustainable, productive farming systems. In this study, a bibliometric analysis of scientific publications from 1977 to 2023 on chickpea agronomic practices was conducted, revealing critical insights. India, as the world's leading chickpea producer, plays a pivotal role, not only in production but also as a significant contributor to scholarly research and international collaborations. The choice of journals for publication is found to influence research impact. Analysis of research trends using co-occurrence networks of keywords reveals evolving focuses, with a recent shift towards qualitative aspects, such as protein content and nutritional quality, as well as sustainable agricultural practices. The study also emphasizes the necessity for further research on chickpea quality characteristics, strategies to mitigate antinutritional factors, yield optimization, and the impact of climate change on chickpea cultivation. Ultimately, chickpea cultivation research holds great promise in contributing to global food security and environmental sustainability. This bibliometric analysis provides a comprehensive overview of chickpea cultivation research and offers valuable insights for researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders as they navigate the future of sustainable agriculture and the quest for protein-rich food production while minimizing the environmental footprint.

Durum wheat, a staple crop in Italy, faces substantial challenges due to increasing droughts and rising temperatures. This study examines the grain yield, agronomic traits, and quality of 41 durum wheat varieties over ten growing seasons in Southern Italy, utilizing a randomized complete block design. Notably, most varieties were not repeated between trials and 45% of the data was missing. The results indicate that the interaction between genotype and environment (GEI) significantly impacted all traits. High temperatures, elevated vapor pressure deficit (VPD), and water deficits severely affected yield and quality during warm years, while cooler years with favorable water availability promoted better growth and higher yields. Broad-sense heritability (H²) was generally low, suggesting that environmental factors played a major role in the observed traits. However, some traits, such as grain yield, ears per square meter, plant height, bleached wheat, thousand-grain weight, and hectoliter weight exhibited moderate to high heritability of the mean genotype (h²mg), indicating their potential for effective selection in breeding programs. Correlation analyses revealed strong connections between certain traits, such as protein content, and gluten index as well as between grain yield, and spike per square meter. Using the Multi-Trait Mean Performance Selection (MTMPS) index, the study identified six top-performing varieties. Among these, Antalis (G4) and Core (G18) consistently demonstrated strong adaptability and stability across different environments, particularly in hotter, drier conditions. Furio Camillo (G31) also exhibited valuable traits. This study highlights the challenges and complexities of breeding durum wheat for improved yield and quality in the face of climate change.

Within the prevalent challenges posed by climate change and decreasing resources, this research underscores the importance of adopting sustainable agricultural practices combined with efficient water resource management. Employing comprehensive climate and soil suitability analyses, this research analyzed the capacity of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) to adapt to Lebanon’s heterogeneous environmental landscapes across two distinct growing seasons (autumn and spring). Both climate and edaphic suitability mapping were conducted to study hemp’s suitability. AquaCrop v.7.1 was used to simulate seed yield, biomass production, irrigation needs and yield water productivity in the different agro-homogeneous zones of Lebanon for the two considered seasons. The findings revealed that approximately 30% and 19% of Lebanon’s land exhibit suitability for hemp cultivation during the spring and autumn seasons, respectively. According to AquaCrop model simulations, under the prevailing climatic conditions, the predicted seed yield will range from 3.7 to 5.6 t ha−1 under rainfed conditions and will reach 11.1 t ha−1 for irrigated cultivation. Moreover, employing efficient irrigation techniques during the spring season showed a significant improvement in both yield and biomass of hemp. The enhancement was evident, with notable increases of 112.22% in yield and 96.43% in biomass compared to rainfed conditions. This research highlights the importance of identifying suitable regions within Lebanon capable of supporting hemp cultivation in a sustainable manner. Such research not only promises economic development but also aligns with broader global sustainability objectives.

This study examines the effects of biodegradable mulches on melon production and quality in a Mediterranean environment, specifically focusing on Mater-Bi and Ecovio in comparison to conventional (low-density polyethylene) LDPE mulch. Biodegradable mulches influenced soil temperature, with Mater-Bi maintaining higher maximum soil temperatures conducive to crop growth, while Ecovio exhibited lower maximum temperatures beneficial in hot summer months. Results revealed a significant increase in melon yield with biodegradable mulches, with both Ecovio and Mater-Bi demonstrating higher yields at approximately 20.41 t ha−1, showing an improvement of 23.4% compared to LDPE. Although mulching did not impact the number, weight, or distal diameter of marketable fruits, it affected the apical diameter, with Ecovio-treated plants displaying an 8.4% larger apical diameter compared to the average of all treatments. Furthermore, mulching influenced fruit quality parameters such as consistency, pulp thickness, sugar content, and anti-oxidant activity, with Mater-Bi exhibiting the best performance. Since both Mater-Bi and Ecovio possess strengths and weaknesses, selecting the optimal mulch depends on the farmer’s specific objectives and local growing conditions. Overall, the study suggests that biodegradable mulches, particularly Ecovio, offer a sustainable alternative to traditional plastic films, contributing to environmental preservation and enhancing melon yield and quality in Mediterranean agricultural settings.

Globe artichoke is a food plant that is gaining increasing interest due to its commercial, nutritional and therapeutic value; research and development in the field of agriculture for this crop encompasses several key areas to enhance cultivation, productivity, and overall sustainability. In this study a bibliometric analysis of literature has been carried out in order to identify research areas and research gaps in cropping management of globe artichoke under field conditions, and to identify new research opportunities. The analysis revealed that published articles on the agronomic practices of globe artichoke under field conditions, is concentrated in Europe (70.56%), followed by North America (10%) and South America (7.22%). On the vastly arid Australian continent, there is a dearth of such studies. Italy, Spain and USA, were the most productive countries in the globe artichoke research field. The analysed papers have also shown that agronomic practices such as irrigation (wastewater and brackish water), fertilization, diseases management and plant breeding are the most studied cropping practices that affect artichoke yield and head quality. Finally, this study highlights the importance of integrating innovative methods like meta-analysis to gain a more holistic comprehension of how agricultural practices impact globe artichoke and to lays the groundwork for future research endeavours.

In the last two decades, there has been a significant shift in focus towards soil health by international institutions, organizations, and scholars. Recognizing the vital role of soil in sustaining agriculture, ecosystems, and mitigating climate change, there has been a concerted effort to study and understand soil health more comprehensively. In this study, a bibliometric analysis was performed in order to determine the research trend of the articles published in the Scopus database in the last 26 years on soil health experimental studies and agronomic practices conducted in field conditions on agricultural soils. It has been observed that, after 2013, there has been a significant increase in research articles on soil health, with the USA and India research institutions ranking as the most productive on this topic. There is an asymmetry in international cooperation among research institutions, as well as for scholars. In addition, the research topic is gradually shifting from the effects of soil management strategies, especially nutrient management, on soil organic carbon and yield to the study of the impact of soil management on biochemistry and microbiological soil activities and greenhouse gas emissions. Future research should focus into more integrated approaches to achieve soil indicators enabling to evaluate the impact of sustainable management practices (e.g., cropping practices) on soil health.

The growing interest in soil health and sustainable agriculture has emerged as a paramount element in addressing the multifaceted challenges facing modern agriculture [...]

Vineyards from hilly areas of the Mediterranean region are mostly grown in shallow soils that present low soil water holding capacity. These vineyards are prone to water stress conditions, which if well managed can raise the grape quality potential. This study aimed to investigate the water stress development in an "Aglianico" vineyard grown along a 90 m slope. The two-year (2011-2012) trial was conducted in two soils having different hydraulic properties, the Up-slope with lower soil water holding capacity than the Down-slope site. The results showed that grapevines were more stressed in the Up-slope soil than in the Down-slope soil, as reflected by the higher crop water stress index, lower leaf water potential and leaf gas exchanges values. Consequently, the yield was significantly lower by 40% in the Up-slope, which was determined by the lower weight and volume of berries. The smaller berries improved must quality parameters of total soluble solids, total polyphenols, total anthocy-anins, and color intensity within a range of 4-25% higher in the Up-slope compared to the Down-slope site. Moreover, the pre-veraison stress experienced in 2012 reduced yield by 30% and depressed berry weight and volume, compared to 2011. The post-veraison stress induced the improvement of must quality, mainly in the Up -slope 2011. Interestingly, there was no significant difference in the pH and titratable acidity between both sites, which indicates the ability of Up-slope vines to make up for more stressful conditions, and, thus, their resilient behavior to maintain their high-quality wine. This study highlights that vineyards in hilly areas y benefit from a differentiated management between different viticulture zones to bring up their high-quality wine.

BACKGROUND Grass pea (Laithyrus sativus L.) is a rustic plant whose seeds are rich in polyphenols and antioxidants, and it has been consumed as food by human beings since ancient times. This study was conducted in Italy between 2017and 2019 to evaluate under field conditions, the stability of seed yield, biomass and 1000 seed weight (THS) and to assess the antioxidant composition and activity of eleven grass pea accessions. RESULTS The analysis of variance revealed significant effects of the environment, accession and accession x environment (A×E) on the yield, above-ground biomass and the THS. We found that the environment (year) and A×E explained 52.61% and 23.76 % of the total seed yield variation, respectively. No relationship was observed between the yield and the total protein of seeds. Most grass pea accessions showed sensitivity to frost conditions that occurred in the third growing season. The total phenolic content ranged from 50.51 to 112.78 mg/100 g of seeds and the antioxidant activity ranged from 0.576 to 0.898 mmol TE/100 g of seeds and from 0.91 to 1.6 mmol Fe2+ /100 g of seeds in ABTS and FRAP, respectively. Among the accessions, the "Campi Flegrei" and "di Castelcività" showed the best performance with the highest yield and stability, phenolic content and superior antioxidant activity. CONCLUSION The results showed that the yield of grass pea was mainly influenced by different climate conditions. This variability in yield, phenolic content and antioxidant activity among different accessions could help breeders and farmers select high-performance accessions for cultivation. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

A field experiment was carried out in Lebanon to assess the agronomic and essential oil characteristics of cannabis as affected by sowing date and irrigation practice. The experiment consisted of a split-plot design with the water regime being the main factor (Iopt-irrigated when the readily available soil water is depleted; I50- receiving 50% of the irrigation amounts in Iopt treatments) and sowing date as the sub-plot factor (mid-April; end of April; mid-May). Biometric and seed quality parameters of the cannabis crop were determined. The essential oils (EO) of the inflorescence were subjected to a multivariate analysis such as principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA). The obtained results revealed that the aboveground fresh biomass, the dry matter, and the plant height were 55.08%, 59.62%, and 43.11% higher in Iopt than in I50, respectively. However, the EO content was neither statistically affected by the irrigation regime nor by the sowing date. Under early sowing, both the water-use efficiency (WUE) for biomass and the EO production reached their highest values. All treatments presented a similar seed composition except that the crude fat and crude protein content were more elevated in Iopt than in I50 treatments. The main extracted essential oils in cannabis inflorescence corresponded to twenty-six identified compounds representing 79.34% of the monoterpenes and 81.25% of the sesquiterpenes. The monoterpenes were highly correlated with the irrigation treatment and early-April sowing while the sesquiterpenes were better enhanced under I50 and end of April to mid-May sowing. The study reveals that agronomic practices lead to differential responses of pharmacologically useful plant compounds for improved health benefits. Further research is required to clarify the potential for cannabis cultivation in Lebanon.

The use of polluted water to irrigate is an increasing problem in the developing world. Lebanon is a case in point, with heavily polluted irrigation waters, particularly in the Litani River Basin. This study evaluated the potential health risks of irrigating vegetables (radishes, parsley, onions, and lettuce) using three water sources (groundwater, river water, and treated wastewater) and three irrigation methods (drip, sprinkler, and surface) over two growing seasons in 2019 and 2020. Water, crop, and soil samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters, pathogens, and metals (Cu, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Zn). In addition, the bioaccumulation factor, estimated dietary intakes, health risk index, and target hazard quotients were calculated to assess the health risk associated with metal contamination. The study showed that, for water with less than 2 log E. coli CFU/100 mL, no pathogens (Escherichia coli, salmonella, parasite eggs) were detected in irrigated vegetables, irrespective of the irrigation method. With over 2 log E. coli CFU/100 mL in the water, 8.33% of the sprinkler-and surface-irrigated vegetables, and 2.78% of the drip-irrigated root crops (radishes and onions), showed some degree of parasitic contamination. E. coli appeared only on root crops when irrigated with water having over 3 log CFU/100 mL. The concentrations of most metals were significantly lower than the safe limits of the FAO/WHO of the Food Standards Programme Codex, except for zinc and chromium. The trends in the bioaccumulation factor and the estimated dietary intakes of metals were in the order of Cu < Cd < Ni < Cr < Zn. The target hazard quotient values for all metals were lower than 1.0. Under trial conditions, the adoption of drip irrigation with water with less than 3 log E. coli CFU/100 mL proved to be safe, even for vegetables consumed raw, except for root crops such as onions and radishes that should not be irrigated with water having over 2 log E. coli CFU/100 mL. Treated wastewater had no adverse effect on vegetable quality compared to vegetables irrigated with other water sources. These results support efforts to update the Lebanese standards for water reuse in agriculture; standards proposed in 2011 by the FAO, and currently being reviewed by the Lebanese Institution of Standards. This research will inform a sustainable water management policy aimed at protecting the Litani River watershed by monitoring water quality.

Agriculture in south Europe is facing the negative effect of abiotic stresses such as salinity that mostly affect the seed production and seed quality of traditional crops. Under these conditions, quinoa represent a good alternative to ensure the production of high-protein-quality seeds thanks to its tolerance to abiotic stresses. In 2015–2017, a sweet variety of quinoa, “Vikinga”, was tested in Italy within the PROTEIN2FOOD project (EU Horizon2020) as high-quality-protein crop to enhance food protein production in Europe. A field trial was carried out at the experimental farm of CNR-ISAFOM in South Italy, to evaluate the combined effect of drought and salinity on quinoa Vikinga; both freshwater and saline water were used for irrigation. The plots were arranged in a randomized complete block design. The main yield parameters (seed yield, aboveground dry biomass 1000 seed weight), the protein content and other quality traits were analyzed at harvest, to evaluate the effect of applied treatments. The results showed that, in general, different treatments did not affect the main production and quality traits of quinoa “Vikinga”.

Today, irrigated agriculture is even more influenced by climate change with consequent negative effects on food security. The Mediterranean area is most affected by climate change, leading to greater exposure to uncertainty and production risks. In these environments, water stress, rainfall variability, and soil salinization have been accentuated. Improving crop productivity by minimizing such effects is possible through intelligent climate farming practices (CSFP). Towards resilient and sustainable integrated agro-ecosystems through appropriate climate-smart farming practices (TRUSTFATM) is a project funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program with the aim to design integrated agro-ecosystems by conserving natural resources and using the principles of the circular economy for developing climate-resilient production systems in Egypt, Morocco, Italy, France, and Senegal. The Department of Agricultural and Environmental Science (DISAAT) of the University of Bari is responsible for coordinating the activities (starting in 2022) related to the introduction of new crop varieties and management of water and efficient irrigation systems, such as deficit irrigation, use of marginal quality (saline water) irrigation water, and introduction of abiotic stress-tolerant crops.

This study used hyperspectral reflectance data to evaluate the crop physiological parameters of sweet maize. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to identify the wavelengths that primarily contributed to each selected PC. Correlation analysis and multiple linear regression, with a stepwise algorithm, were used to select the best-performing vegetation indices (VIs) for monitoring the yield and physiological response of sweet maize grown under different water and nitrogen availability. The spectral reflectance measurements of crops were taken during the mid-season stage, for two consecutive growing seasons. The multivariate regression results showed that red-edge group indices, such as CARI (Chlorophyll Absorption Reflectance Index), DD (Double Difference Index), REIP (Red-Edge Inflection Point), and Clred-edge (Chlorophyll Red-Edge) indices were good predictors of yield and physiological parameters, confirming the crucial role of the red-edge spectral region that also emerged through PCA. Moreover, DD, REIP, and Clred-edge VIs were able to discriminate transient temporary stress at the mid-season stage, as well as to separate water and N stress levels. Therefore, hyperspectral reflectance VIs can provide valid information to growers, helping them identify and discriminate between different stress conditions.