Accurate and quantitative assessment of Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) changes is crucial for understanding the spatial dynamics and environmental impacts within specific regions. In hilly terrains like the Nilgiris district in Tamil Nadu, India, these assessments are particularly challenging due to the complex topography and when classified using sparse ground truth labels. With numerous data mining algorithms being validated for several earth observation applications, demands are also increasing in selecting the best classifier algorithm for LULC mapping. Popularly implemented pixel-based data mining classifiers such as Random Forest (RF), Support Vector Machine (SVM), C5.0 Decision trees (C50), Naive Bayes (NB), Multinomial Logistic Regression (MLR), AdaBoost, Bagged CART, Nearest Shrunken Centroids (NSC), Genetic Algorithm based CART (Evetree), Neural Networks with PCA (NNPCA), k-Nearest Neighbours (k-NN), Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), and 1 Dimensional – Convoluted Neural Networks (1DCNN) were studied by integrating different auxiliary variables with sparse ground truth labels (391 Nos.). The accuracy of the predictions was then validated using Overall Accuracy (OA), Kappa, and disagreement measures based on the validation datasets. The most influential auxiliary variables contributing to the classification determined through PFI (Permutation Feature Importance) analysis, resulted with Digital Elevation Model (DEM) being the most influential auxiliary variable, among others. From the validation measures and the visual assessment facilitated for each algorithm, the effective performance in classification was depicted by Support Vector Machine - Linear Kernel (SVM - L) and followed by Random Forest (RF) algorithms with OA of 88

Changes in land use have an impact on ecosystem services by affecting soil quality. Thus, soil quality assessment using the soil quality index (SQI) can help better understand the LUC (land use change) impact on soil health. This study was established to explore the soil quality of the Nilgiri Hill Region (NHR) in the Western Ghats global biodiversity hotspot (India’s first biosphere reserve) under six major ecosystems cropland (CL), deciduous forest (DF), evergreen forest (EF), forest plantation (FP), scrubland (SL) and tea plantation (TP). The minimum data sets (MDS) were selected using PCA (Principal component analysis) and EO (Experts’ opinion). LUC from the natural ecosystem has significantly decreased soil quality. The selected indicators under PCA (water-soluble carbohydrates, microbial biomass carbon, dehydrogenase, available K, available N and carbon stock), and EO ( aggregate stability, pH, CEC, available N, available Zn, passive pools, CO2, dehydrogenase, and aggregate size organic carbon (2 mm)) spotlights the wide variation between the natural and the altered ecosystems. Furthermore, the selected indicators were positively correlated with total organic carbon (TOC). This research cautions that the LUC will have a substantial effect on soil quality, a crucial factor for achieving a future that is environmentally sustainable. Our research indicates the need for an immediate implementation of management strategies to improve the soil quality in degraded ecosystems (CL and TP) of NHR.

The revolutionary impact of regenerative agriculture on ecosystem restoration and land vitality in India delineates the nuances of its principles, practices, and the symbiotic relationship with community engagement and policy frameworks. Regenerative agriculture, a holistic approach prioritizing soil health, biodiversity, water management, and carbon sequestration, emerges as a critical solution to the challenges of soil degradation, biodiversity loss, and climate change faced by Indian agriculture. Through a synthesis of comparative studies and case analyses, this review highlights the tangible benefits of regenerative practices, such as enhanced soil structure, fertility, and microbial health, alongside improved water infiltration and conservation, underscoring the pivotal role of biodiversity in bolstering farm resilience and ecological balance. The narrative further delves into the socio-economic dimensions, examining the economic viability, knowledge dissemination, and the vital role of measurement and verification in scaling regenerative practices. Community and societal engagement, pivotal for fostering consumer demand for regeneratively produced products and collective restoration efforts, is identified as a cornerstone for the transition towards sustainable agriculture. Moreover, the review identifies the need for long-term impact studies to monitor ecosystem changes and assess global scalability. By integrating scientific research with policy analysis, the review advocates for innovations in regenerative techniques, aligned with precision agriculture, and underscores the necessity of supportive policy and economic incentives to catalyze the transition towards regenerative agriculture in India, thereby contributing to global food security and environmental sustainability.

Climate change poses a substantial threat to agricultural sustainability globally. Agriculture is a vital component of the gross domestic production of developing countries. The multifaceted impacts of climate change on agriculture, highlighting how extreme weather events such as water stress, heatwaves, erratic rainfall, storms, floods, and emerging pest infestations are disrupting agricultural productivity. The socioeconomic status of farmers is particularly vulnerable to climatic extremes with future projections indicating significant increment in ambient air temperatures and unpredictable, intense rainfall patterns. Agriculture has historically relied on the extensive use of synthetic fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides, combined with advancements in irrigation and biotechnological approaches to boost productivity. It encompasses a range of practices designed to enhance the resilience of agricultural systems, improve productivity, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. By adopting climate-smart practices, farmers can better adapt to changing climatic conditions, thereby ensuring more sustainable and secure food production. Furthermore, it identifies key areas for future research, focusing on the development of innovative adaptation and mitigation strategies. These strategies are essential for minimizing the detrimental impacts of climate change on agriculture and for promoting the long-term sustainability of food systems. This article underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches and the integration of advanced technologies to address the challenges posed by climate change. By fostering a deeper understanding of these issues to inform policymakers, researchers, and practitioners about effective strategies to safeguard agricultural productivity and food security in the face of changing climate.

Land use change (LUC), alters the multifarious biodiversity hotspots directly and indirectly through the loss of soil quality. A comparative study on soil carbon status and soil microbiome in undisturbed natural forest eco-systems with that of other land uses which gradually altered over time can serve as a suitable indicator for understanding LUC impact on carbon cycles. With this aim, the current investigation was initiated to infer the cyclic effects of LUC on the soil carbon status under six major ecosystems viz., cropland (CL), deciduous forest (DF), evergreen forest (EF), forest plantation (FP), scrubland (SL) and tea plantation (TP) of the Nilgiri Hill Region (NHR) (India's first biosphere reserve). The total organic carbon (TOC) and carbon stocks were highest in evergreen forest (10.25 %, 322.06 t ha-1) and they decreased with increasing depth of the soil profile across the pools of varying carbon lability. The proportion of active carbon pools (AP) in total carbon was higher in crop land and tea plantation (57.47 %, 58.38 %), however, in the case of evergreen forest, deciduous forest, forest plantation and scrub land the passive carbon pools (PP) (54.99 %, 61.28 %, 59.43 % and 60.70 %) was higher. We discovered LUC has altered the proportion of soil carbon pools, and the efficiency of soil microbiome and has resulted in higher carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in tea plantation (71.87 t ha-1) and crop land (82.39 t ha-1). However, the native ecosystems (evergreen forest and deciduous forest) with higher recalcitrant carbon pools (46.96 g kg-1 and 34.89 g kg-1) prevent such carbon degradation and thereby hinder the soil carbon emissions as recorded in evergreen forest (48.43 t ha-1) and deciduous forest (56.47 t ha-1). Conclusively, our study demonstrates that LUC has substantially influenced the carbon cycle by altering the carbon stocks and CO2 emissions in relation to soil microbes. Henceforth, in order to maintain carbon footprints and attain carbon net neutrality under the current climate change scenario, suitable carbon management measures must be implemented in carbon-degraded ecosystems (crop land and tea plantation) of NHR.

Abstract Evapotranspiration (ETo) is an important component of the hydrological cycle and reliable estimates of ETo are essential for assessing crop water requirements and irrigation management. Direct measurement of evapotranspiration is both costly and involves complex and intricate procedures. Hence, empirical models are commonly utilized to estimate ETo using accessible meteorological data. Given that empirical methods operate on various assumptions, it is essential to assess their performance to pinpoint the most suitable methods for ETo calculation based on the availability of input data and the specific climatic conditions of a region. This study aims to evaluate different empirical methods of ETo in the tropical highland Udhagamandalam region of Tamil Nadu, India, utilizing sixty years of meteorological data from 1960–2020. In this study, 8 temperature-based and 10 radiation-based empirical models are evaluated against ETo estimates derived from pan evaporation observation and the FAO Penman–Monteith method (FAO-PM), respectively. Statistical error metrics indicate that both temperature and radiation-based models perform better for the Udhagamandalam region. However, radiation-based models performed better than the temperature based models. This is possibly due to the high humidity of the study region throughout the year. The results suggest that simple temperature and radiation-based models using minimum meteorological information are adequate to estimate ETo and thus find potential application in agricultural water practices, hydrological processes, and irrigation management.

The future of agriculture is questionable under the current climate change scenario. Climate change and climate-related calamities directly influence biotic and abiotic factors that control agroecosystems, endangering the safety of the world's food supply. The intricate interactions between soil microorganisms, including plants, bacteria, and fungi, play a pivotal role in promoting sustainable agriculture and ecosystem restoration. Soil microbes play a major part in nutrient cycling, including soil organic carbon (SOC), and play a pivotal function in the emission and depletion of greenhouse gases, including CH4, CO2, and N2O, which can impact the climate. At this juncture, developing a triumphant metagenomics approach has greatly increased our knowledge of the makeup, functionality, and dynamics of the soil microbiome. Currently, the involvement of plants in climate change indicates that they can interact with the microbial communities in their environment to relieve various stresses through the innate microbiome assortment of focused strains, a phenomenon dubbed "Cry for Help." The metagenomics method has lately appeared as a new platform to adjust and encourage beneficial communications between plants and microbes and improve plant fitness. The metagenomics of soil microbes can provide a powerful tool for designing and evaluating ecosystem restoration strategies that promote sustainable agriculture under a changing climate. By identifying the specific functions and activities of soil microbes, we can develop restoration programs that support these critical components of healthy ecosystems while providing economic benefits through ecosystem services. In the current review, we highlight the innate functions of microbiomes to maintain the sustainability of agriculture and ecosystem restoration. Through this insight study of soil microbe metagenomics, we pave the way for innovative strategies to address the pressing challenges of food security and environmental conservation. The present article elucidates the mechanisms through which plants and microbes communicate to enhance plant resilience and ecosystem restoration and to leverage metagenomics to identify and promote beneficial plant-microbe interactions. Key findings reveal that soil microbes are pivotal in nutrient cycling, greenhouse gas modulation, and overall ecosystem health, offering novel insights into designing ecosystem restoration strategies that bolster sustainable agriculture. As this is a topic many are grappling with, hope these musings will provide people alike with some food for thought.

Large-scale deforestation and increased land use change (LUC) over the past few years have shattered the ecological balance of the Western Ghats by deteriorating the soil quality and essential ecosystem services. This study was conducted in part of the Western Ghats comprising three different ecosystems, viz., agro ecosystem (AE), tea ecosystem (TE), and forest ecosystem (FE) to assess the impact of LUC on soil carbon dynamics. A total of 150 sites were chosen and soil samples were collected at three depth classes of 0–15, 15–30, and 30–45 cm to quantify the carbon pools, total organic carbon (TOC), total inorganic carbon (TIC), total carbon (TC), carbon stock, and carbon management index (CMI). The findings revealed that TOC concentration and carbon stock were significantly higher in FE than in TE and AE. On average (0–45 cm), the carbon stocks recorded in FE, TE, and AE were 77.94, 44.32, and 32.30 t ha−1 and decreased with the depth, while the concentration of total inorganic carbon (TIC) increased with depth. Among the various carbon pools, the very labile carbon (VLC) was higher in AE and TE while the non-labile carbon (NLC) was higher in FE. The active carbon pools (AP) in AE and TE were higher than passive carbon pools (PP), whereas the reverse trend occurred in FE. The results depict the shift in carbon dynamics under different ecosystems of Ooty. The magnitude of the shift is measured by the carbon management index (CMI), which revealed a higher CMI in FE than in AE and TE. The findings thus suggest the imperative need for immediate implementation of carbon management strategies in AE and TE to improve the carbon sequestration potential, achieve land degradation neutrality and improve the carbon footprints of the Ooty.

Accelerating land-use change (LUC) in the Nilgiri Hill Region (NHR) has caused its land to mortify. Although this deterioration has been documented, the destruction of buried gem soil has not been reported. Therefore, this study was conducted to assess the impact of LUC on soil-carbon dynamics in the six major ecosystems in the NHR: croplands (CLs), deciduous forests (DFs), evergreen forests (EFs), forest plantations (FPs), scrublands (SLs), and tea plantations (TPs). Sampling was conducted at selected sites of each ecosystem at three depth classes (0–15, 15–30, and 30–45 cm) to quantify the carbon pools (water-soluble carbon, water-soluble carbohydrates, microbial biomass carbon, microbial biomass nitrogen, dehydrogenase, and different fractions of particulate organic carbon). We found that the LUC significantly decreased the concentration of carbon in the altered ecosystems (49.44–78.38%), with the highest being recorded at EF (10.25%) and DF (7.15%). In addition, the effects of the LUC on the aggregate size of the organic carbon were dissimilar across all the aggregate sizes. The relatively high inputs of the aboveground plant residues and the richer fine-root biomass were accountable for the higher concentration of carbon pools in the untouched EFs and DFs compared to the SLs, FPs, TPs, and CLs. The results of the land-degradation Index (LDI) depicted the higher vulnerability of TP (−72.67) and CL (−79.00). Thus, our findings highlight the global importance of LUC to soil quality. Henceforth, the conservation of carbon pools in fragile ecosystems, such as the NHR, is crucial to keep soils alive and achieve land-degradation neutrality.

Land use change (LUC) has direct and indirect consequences on soil quality. To gain insight into how LUC influences the physical properties of soil, it can be advantageous to compare undisturbed ecosystems with those that have naturally evolved over time, as well as to use soil quality indices to pinpoint the sensitivity of each ecosystem and land use change (LUC). A soil survey was carried out in the six major ecosystems of the Nilgiri Hill Region: cropland (CL), deciduous forest (DF), evergreen forest (EF), forest plantation (FP), scrubland (SL), and tea plantation (TP), with those having an establishment for over 50 years being selected and analyzed for soil physical parameters. In addition, soil quality indices were also derived to pinpoint the vulnerability of each ecosystem to LUC. The results reveal that the changes in land use significantly altered the soil physical properties. The content of clay was higher in EF and DF and increased with the soil profile’s depth, whereas the sand content was higher in CL and TP and decreased with the depth increment. BD and PD were significantly lower in EF, DF, SL, and FP, whereas they were higher in CL and TP. PS and ASM followed a similar trend to BD and PD. Owing to undisturbed natural settings, an abundance of litter input, and higher carbon concentrations, the HC was higher in EF, DF, SL, and FP, whereas, in the case of anthropogenic-influenced ecosystems such as CL and TP, it was lower. We discovered that LUC has altered Ag S, WSA, and MWD. Due to tillage and other cultural practices, Ag S, WSA, and MWD were significantly lower in CL and TP. However, the results confirm that native ecosystems (EF and DF) with a higher carbon content prevent such degradation, thereby resulting in good Ag S, WSA, and MWD.

To achieve sustainability in agricultural crop production, water-soluble fertilizers were produced around the world. With this view, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, has produced TNAU-Water Soluble Fertilizers (TNAU-WSF). The field experiment was carried out in the farmer’s field at Devarayapuram, Coimbatore, to assess the effect of newly synthesized TNAU-Water Soluble Fertilizers (TNAU-WSF) on nutrient uptake and nutrient use efficiencies of small onions. The experiment was conducted in Randomized block design (RBD), which includes eight treatments of different nutrient levels of soil test based application from 125%, 100% and 75% NPK as TNAU-WSF with sulphur and TNAU Multi Micronutrient (TNAU-LMM). The results were obtained as the soil test based application of 125% NPK as TNAU-WSF with sulphur and TNAU-LMM recorded higher nutrient uptake (N, P, K, and micronutrients) and nutrient use efficiencies (agronomic efficiency and apparent nutrient use efficiency) compared to other nutrient levels (100% and 75%).

Soil microbes are microscopic organisms that inhabit the soil and play a significant role in various ecological processes. They are essential for nutrient cycling, carbon sequestration, and maintaining soil health. Importantly, soil microbes have the potential to sequester carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere through processes like carbon fixation and storage in organic matter. Unlocking the potential of microbial-driven carbon storage holds the key to revolutionizing climate-smart agricultural practices, paving the way for sustainable productivity and environmental conservation. A fascinating tale of nature's unsung heroes is revealed by delving into the realm of soil microbes. The guardians of the Earth are these tiny creatures that live beneath our feet and discreetly work their magic to fend off the effects of climate change. These microbes are also essential for plant growth enhancement through their roles in nutrient uptake, nitrogen fixation, and synthesis of growth-promoting chemicals. By understanding and managing soil microbial communities, it is possible to improve soil health, soil water-holding capacity, and promote plant growth in agricultural and natural ecosystems. Added to it, these microbes play an important role in biodegradation, bioremediation of heavy metals, and phytoremediation, which in turn helps in treating the contaminated soils. Unfortunately, climate change events affect the diversity, composition, and metabolism of these microbes. Unlocking the microbial potential demands an interdisciplinary endeavor spanning microbiology, ecology, agronomy, and climate science. It is a call to arms for the scientific community to recognize soil microbes as invaluable partners in the fight against climate change. By implementing data-driven land management strategies and pioneering interventions, we possess the means to harness their capabilities, paving the way for climate mitigation, sustainable agriculture, and promote ecosystem resilience in the imminent future.