This chapter describes the role of schools in supporting healthy eating in children and young people by reviewing a range of international school policies and interventions in place to promote healthy eating, reviewing the purpose of such initiatives and their impact upon schoolchildren. We describe some of the challenges faced by schools in supporting healthy eating, and the requirements for successful implementation. Finally, we discuss the role of schools as part of a wider food system to benefit children and communities.

Substantial evidence shows that regular participation in physical activity reduces chronic disease risk and promotes well-being and quality of life, yet many people are insufficiently active to reap these benefits. Encouraging participation in sport represents one way to increase physical activity levels in the population. In this chapter, we summarise the evidence linking sports participation and physical activity levels and outline characteristics of sports activities and programmes that are conducive to increased physical activity. In addition, we examine the links between sport and health promotion and provide suggestions for effective strategies and policy actions to optimise the health promoting potential of sport in a variety of settings.

This chapter presents and summarises the evidence which underpins guidelines from governments and international agencies with regard to the level and nature of physical activity likely to confer benefits for health. All aspects of the recommendations are discussed, including intensity, amount, frequency and pattern of aerobic activity as well as the need to maintain muscular strength and endurance. Recent evidence for the inclusion of guidance on sedentary behaviour is examined, as is the different approach of steps per day. A section on the potential of walking, a safe and easily accessible activity, to improve fitness and confer health benefits precedes a separate section on active travel. The challenge of changing physical activity behaviour is addressed, as are short sections dealing with ‘benefits versus risks’ and the economic consequences of high levels of inactivity.

ORIGINALIAThe menopausal transition with its very pronounced decline of estradiol levels cause predominately negative effects on all tissue with estrogen receptors (25) included the negative influence on risk factors that promote cardiovascular disease (1).Women between 55 and 69 years of age are particularly at risk (36).Cardiometabolic and cardiovascular diseases, in addition to muscular and skeletal disorders, also contribute to high morbidity in this age group (26,33).For these reasons, an exercise program should be developed that counteracts precisely these problems.Unfortunately there is a lack of studies that focus on this issue, particularly with respect to cardiometabolic risk factors related to menopausal Estradiol decline (27,34).There is considerable evidence that tailored exercise interventions can reduce cardio-

This study explored the mechanisms of physical activity (PA) compensation among older adults who recently reduced their non-exercise physical activity (NEPA) in response to a structured PA intervention. A post-trial, retrospective qualitative process evaluation using interviews was employed. Levels of PA compensation were determined by comparing NEPA prior to and during the final week of a 4-week structured PA intervention. Those who reduced their NEPA by 10% or greater were considered as compensators. Interviews were conducted with older adult compensators (mean age = 58.56 ± 3.88 years; n  = 9), employing thematic analysis to identify potential mechanisms of PA compensation. The findings suggest that the majority of participants were unaware that they had compensated in their PA, suggesting that this may be a non-volitional process. Most participants perceived PA compensation to hold negative implications for health and well-being. Physiological processes of fatigue and delayed onset of muscle soreness were cited as the principal cause of PA compensation, whereas psychological processes including a drive to be inactive, fear of overexertion, deficient motivation, and perceived time constraints were cited to a lesser extent. A range of physiological and psychological compensatory barriers were identified. Implications of and methods to overcome these compensatory barriers are discussed. What is already known on this subject? What does this study add?

We read the recent Editorial “It is time to bust the myth of physical inactivity and obesity: you cannot outrun a bad diet”1 with interest. While discussion about prevention and treatment of obesity is vital, we feel this piece did not make a positive contribution to ongoing scientific debate. We understand that the Editorial was written to be provocative, but are concerned about the potential damage of misleading and extreme opinions on issues of public health. We believe that there are serious flaws in the interpretation, understanding and reasoning that should not go unchecked. We highlight four points to demonstrate these flaws, rebut the assertions of the authors, and show why the debate on physical activity (PA) and obesity should disregard the Editorial. 1. Title: “The myth of physical inactivity and obesity” What myth are the authors referring to? This should be outlined, explaining whether this is authors’ opinion, or can be evidenced in some way. Further, much of the content is unrelated to this title. It is imperative that a title reflects the content of a piece of scientific work whether it is opinion …

Introduction: There is increasing evidence that sedentary behaviour is related to poor health outcomes and risk of chronic disease independent of physical activity behaviour. Occupational environments often promote prolonged periods of sedentary behaviour. Interventions to reduce and break up sedentary behaviour are required. This study investigates the immediate effect of a person centred consultation intervention for reducing sedentary behaviour (sitting time) in Scottish working adults.

Introduction: Recent epidemiological evidence of the importance of sedentary time and health suggests that an accurate measurement of population-level sedentary behaviour is required. The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) is a valid self-report measure of physical activity that has been used in population surveillance. In addition to recalled physical activity, the IPAQ contains items asking about recalled sitting time. The purpose of this study was to compare recalled weekday sitting time as measured by the IPAQ with objectively monitored sedentary time recorded by the activPAL™ activity monitor in Scottish adults.

The purpose of this study was to identify possible relationships between the sum of knee flexion and extension peak torques and the severity of lower-body injuries in professional dancers. Twenty male [age 26.6 (± 6.0) years] and 22 female [age 27.1 (± 5.4) years] ballet and contemporary dancers reported one or more low-back, pelvis, leg, knee and foot injuries. The severity of injuries was established by recording the days off dance activities. Subjects were then monitored on a Cybex II or a KIN-CON isokinetic dynamometer. Knee flexion and extension peak torques were obtained bilaterally during three maximal contractions at the velocities of 1.04 and 4.19 rad/sec. No musculoskeletal injuries were reported at the time of data collection. At 1.04 rad/sec, results revealed significant correlation coefficients between relative thigh peak torques — expressed in Nm/kg fat free mass (FFM) — and prevalence of low extremity injuries. These findings suggest that the lower the thigh-power output, the greater the degree of injury. Female dancers demonstrated higher correlation coefficients (r -0.70; p < 0.005) than their male counterparts (r = -0.61; p < 0.01). However, no such correlations were found at the angular velocity of 4.19 rad/sec (p > 0.05), nor when low-back injuries and thigh-power outputs were considered at both velocities (p > 0.05). The main conclusions are: a) low thigh power outputs are likely to be associated with the severity of low extremity injuries, but not with low-back injuries, and b) such relationships are better identified at lower compared to higher isokinetic velocities.

Object oriented techniques promote understanding of requirements leading to flexible and extendible designs. The use of formal specification techniques ensures a complete understanding of system requirements and provides sound foundations for subsequent testing and verification. This paper describes the use of the Z and Timed CSP formal specification techniques to support object modelling during real-time system development. Relationships between class attributes are specified within the corresponding Z schemas and inheritance relationships between classes are formally specified using the schema extension mechanism of Z. Z is used to specify the domain types of the attributes of classes identified during object oriented analysis and design. Z is also used to produce model based specifications of the methods within classes that are specified informally during functional analysis. Dynamic analysis identifies events, states and temporal relationships between events. Timed CSP is used to formally specify this information as well as timing information that is necessary during real-time system development.

Friesian steers were transported by road for 24h at low, medium and high stocking density to assess the welfare and economic effects of long journeys. Plasma cortisol and glucose were elevated after transport (P<0.01) particularly at high stocking density. The white blood cell count and neutrophil numbers increased (P<0.001) and the numbers of lymphocytes and eosinophils decreased (P<0.001). Packed cell volume and red blood cell count increased (P<0.001), as did the concentration of total protein, haemoglobin and fibrinogen (P<0.001). The most common standing orientation was perpendicular to the direction of travel, there was a strong bias against diagonal orientations. Some animals lay down during transit at all stocking densities, but only at the high stocking density were animals trapped down and unable to rise. Carcass bruising, and plasma activity of creatine kinase increased with stocking density. The number of muscles with final pH values above 6.0 increased, and this effect was not linked to stocking density. The results show that stocking densities above about 550 kg/m2 are unacceptable for animals in this weight range on long journeys. At medium and low density, the physiological data suggest that any increase in journey time or deterioration in transport conditions would be detrimental to welfare. On a étudié l'incidence économique et l'effet sur le bienêtre, du transport routier de longue durée de taurillons Frisons embarqués à différentes densités (faibles, moyennes, élevées) de chargement. Le transport entrîne une élévation du cortisol et du glucose sanguins (P<0.01) et, cela, particulièrement aux densités de chargement élevées. Le nombre de globules blancs et des neutrophiles augmente et celui des lymphocytes et des éosinophiles diminue significativement (P<0.001). L'hématocrite et le nombre des hématies augmente significativement (P<0.001) ainsi que la concentration en protéine, en hémoglobine et en fibrinogène. La disposition des animaux la plus courante, perpendiculaire au sens de la marche, a entrîné de profondes modifications par rapport à la disposition en diagonale. Quelques animaux se couchent pendant le voyage, quelle que soit la densité de chargement, mais c'est seulement aux fortes densités que des animaux restent au sol et ne peuvent plus se relever. Les meurtrissures des caracasses et l'activité plasmatique de la créatine-kinase augmentent avec la densité de chargement. Le nombre de muscles dépassant un pH final de 6.0 augmente et, cela, indépendamment de la densité de chargement. Les résultats montrent que des densités de chargement supérieures à 550 kg/m2 pour des animaux de ce poids sont inacceptables pour de longs voyages. Aux faibles et moyennes densités de chargement les paramètres physiologiques montrent que toute prolongation de la durée du voyage et toute détérioration des conditions du voyage jouent au détriment du bien-être des animaux. Friesianbullen wurden während 24 Studen bei tiefer, mittlerer und hoher Bestandesdichte auf der Strasse transportiert, um die Konsequenzen langer Transporte auf den Gesundheitszustand und die Wirtschaftlichkeit zu untersuchen. Plasma Kortisol- und Glukosegehalte waren erhöht nach dem Transport und besonders hoch (P<0.01) bei hoher Bestandesdichte. Die Anzahl weisser Blutzellen und Neutrophile stieg an (P<0.001) während die Anzahl Lymphozyten und Eosinophile sank (P<0.001). Das gepackte Zellvolumen und rote Blutzellen (P<0.001) wie auch die Konzentration der Gesamtproteine, des Haemoglobins und des Fibrinogens (P<0.001), nahmen zu. Die häufigst gefundene Stehrichtung der Tiere war senkrecht zur Fahrtrichtung, es war eine starke Abneigung gegenüber der diagonalen Stehrichtung vorhanden. In allen drei Bestandesdichten legten sich einige Tiere während des Transportes hin, aber nur in der hohen Bestandesdichte wurden Tiere niedergetrampelt und waren unfähig aufzustehen. Schlachtkörperhaematome und Plasma Aktivität der Kreatinkinase stiegen mit zunehmender Bestandesdichte an. Die Anzahl Muskeln mit pH-Werten über 6.0 nahm zu und dieser Effekt war nicht mit der Bestandesdichte gekoppelt. Die Resultate zeigten, dass Bestandesdichten von über 550 kg/m2 auf Ferntransporten unzumutbar sind für Tiere dieser Gewichtsklassen. Die physiologischen Daten aus den Untersuchungen bei mittleren und tiefen Bestandesdichten lassen vermuten, dass sich eine Verlängerung der Transportzeit oder schlechtere Transportbedingungen ungünstig auf die Gesundheit auswirken.

The physiological characteristics of 10 male elite sport parachutists (31.6 +/- 3.69 years of age) were determined and compared to 10 male non-sport parachutist controls (30.2 +/- 4.31 years) and other selected elite athletes. The typical sport parachutist was a highly educated (16.4 +/- 2.41 years), first born (9 out of 10), and, more often than not, single individual. During their mean 10.8 years of sport parachuting, these individuals made an average total number of 1,950 jumps (range 980 to 3,100) with a mean of 237.5 jumps during each of the last three years. Mean total free fall time was 22 h and 40 min. Compared to the non-sport parachutist control group, the elite sport parachutists were significantly higher (p less than 0.05) in aerobic power (47.4 +/- 9.04 vs. 37.2 +/- 4.67 ml X kg-1 X min-1), vital capacity (5.27 +/- 0.49 vs. 5.05 +/- 0.31 L), maximum heart rate (203.2 +/- 9.2 vs. 190.1 +/- 7.4 bpm), and back hyperextension flexibility (21.12 +/- 4.1 vs. 18.41 +/- 2.4 in). The elite sport parachutist were also significantly lower (p less than 0.05) in relative (%) body fat when compared to the control group (15.7 +/- 4.51 vs. 20.1 +/- 2.12%). The two groups were not significantly different (p greater than 0.05) with respect to resting heart rate, absolute body weight, dominant hand-grip strength, or lower back/hamstring flexibility as measured by the sit-and-reach test. Regarding somatotype, the elite sport parachutist can be classified as a balanced mesomorph. Compared to other selected elite athletes, the sport parachutists were lower in aerobic power and higher in relative body fat, yet with a summation of triceps, suprailiac, and abdominal skinfolds in the acceptable range for male athletes. The elite sport parachutists were approximately mid-range in absolute body weight and lower back/hamstring flexibility when compared to other selected elite athletes. Based on the findings of this study, there is evidence to suggest that some form of regular aerobic exercise along with a stretching and flexibility program is advisable for those individuals considering frequent participation and desiring peak performance in sport parachuting.