Objectives Traits that are detrimental for health may persist in populations because they are advantageous for reproduction. Apolipoprotein E is a protein involved in lipid metabolism, and it is encoded by a polymorphic gene (ApoE) with three alleles: ApoE2, ApoE3, and ApoE4. ApoE4 allele is associated with elevated cholesterol levels, and increased risk of various metabolic and age-related diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and dementia. Because lipids are crucial for steroid hormone synthesis and thus the ovarian function, ApoE4 allele may be associated with enhanced fertility. Therefore, we hypothesize that women with different ApoE genotypes will exhibit differences in reproductive history traits.Methods Participants included 360 postreproductive women aged 45-92 from a Polish rural population living at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site. General linear models were used to test differences in age at menarche, age at first reproduction, number of children born, mean interbirth interval and age at last reproduction across different ApoE genotypes.Results No significant differences were observed between ApoE genotypes in any of the tested reproductive history parameters.Conclusion Although some of the previous research has suggested that carriers of ApoE4 have more successful reproduction, we found no evidence supporting such an association among postreproductive aged women from a traditional, agricultural community. It is possible that ApoE4 may confer reproductive advantages only under specific ecological or lifestyle conditions, such as high pathogen burden or low-energy diet.

Background:The early-life environment has a significant influence on health in later life, including the risk of cardiometabolic diseases (CMDs). Several biomarkers have been proposed as putative indicators of early-life environmental quality, including facial fluctuating asymmetry (FA) and facial averageness (AVE). This study aimed to explore the association between facial FA and AVE with CMDs risk factors in women of post-reproductive age. Methods:The participants were 248 post-reproductive women (M = 61.6, SD = 10.70) from the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site in Poland. Standardized facial photographs were taken, and FA and AVE were calculated using geometric morphometrics. Fasting blood samples were collected, and blood pressure was measured directly. Body composition was assessed via bioelectrical impedance analysis. CMDs risk factors included blood pressure, total cholesterol, high-density and low-density lipoproteins, triglycerides, and glucose levels. Additionally, the risk of metabolic syndrome was determined for each participant. Cardiovascular disease risk was also evaluated using the Systematic Coronary Risk Estimation scale (SCORE). FA and AVE were modelled separately against each CMDs risk factor using hierarchical linear and logistic models. Results:No statistically significant associations were found between either FA or AVE and individual CMDs risk factors. Similarly, no relationships were observed between facial measurements and either SCORE or metabolic syndrome risk. Follow-up Bayesian analyses provided evidence that FA and AVE did not predict CMDs risk factors. Conclusions and implications:While facial asymmetry and averageness may influence perceptions of health, they are unlikely to serve as biomarkers of CMDs risk in older women.

INTRODUCTION:Physical activity patterns across the menstrual cycle may reflect evolutionary adaptations that optimize reproductive success by aligning heightened activity with the fertile window and lowered activity in the luteal phase, when the female's body prepares for a possible pregnancy. METHODS:This study examined variation in physical activity patterns across five arbitrary phases of the ovulatory menstrual cycle in 77 healthy women (age: 20-36 years). Based on ovulation tests and the date of the next menstruation, the menstrual cycle was divided into five physiologically distinct phases: menstrual, follicular, peri-ovulatory, luteal, and premenstrual. Daily physical activity was measured using a wristband accelerometer that tracked step count and activity duration at various intensities: sedentary, light, moderate, and intense, and the total 24-h duration of activity. Differences among phases were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA, with corrections for multiple comparisons. RESULTS:Step counts were higher in the follicular phase compared to the premenstrual phase (mean 10.2 vs. 8.9, respectively, p = 0.001), and total activity time was higher during the follicular phase than in the premenstrual phase (mean 99.3 vs. 90.8, p = 0.004). No other significant differences were observed. CONCLUSIONS:Step count and total active time peaks in the follicular phase and declines during the premenstrual phase. Our study highlights the importance of accurately identifying phases of the menstrual cycle and analyzing various activity intensities for understanding physical activity behavior across the menstrual cycle.

OBJECTIVES:Duration and quality of sleep are influenced by many factors, including hormonal changes. The aim of this study was to investigate the differences between the phases of the menstrual cycle in total sleep duration and sleep stage distribution, specifically the duration of rapid eye movement (REM) phase, light, and deep sleep states and compare sleep parameters between ovulatory and anovulatory cycles. METHODS:The study involved 130 women aged 20-35 (mean = 26.2 years; SD = 4.14). Ovulation was detected using luteinizing hormone (LH) urine tests. Sleep data were collected using the Fitbit Alta HR trackers, which measured total sleep time and the duration of sleep stages. Sleep parameters were analyzed separately for each of the five phases: menstrual bleeding, follicular, periovulatory, luteal, and premenstrual using repeated measures ANOVA. Differences between ovulatory and anovulatory cycles were assessed using Student's t-test. RESULTS:Women with the ovulatory cycle slept longer and had longer REM phases compared to women without ovulation. No statistically significant differences were observed in total sleep duration or sleep stage distribution across five phases of the menstrual cycle among women with detected ovulation. CONCLUSION:The findings suggest that ovulatory status might be associated with differences in total sleep time and REM sleep duration, whereas sleep duration and sleep stage distribution across menstrual cycle phases remain relatively constant. These results suggest that the presence of ovulation, rather than phase-specific changes during the cycle, may play a more important role in shaping sleep characteristics.

OBJECTIVES:Microbiota of the urogenital tract is crucial for women's reproductive and sexual health and is largely dominated by Lactobacillus strains. A reduction of these bacteria within the vaginal microbial community has been linked to gynecological disorders and infections. It is assumed that the urogenital microbiota composition is influenced by estrogens; however, in most studies estrogen levels were not reliably measured. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between salivary estradiol levels and the abundance of Lactobacillus species in the vaginal microbiota of healthy, reproductive-age women across three menstrual cycles. METHODS:The participants were 39 women between 20 and 35 years with regular menstrual cycles. Over three cycles, participants collected daily saliva samples for measuring estradiol levels and vaginal swabs at several time points. Three model approaches were tested: immediate, delayed, and cumulative effect models. Additional day-specific analyses and adjustments for body fat or BMI were conducted. RESULTS:No statistically significant associations were found between estradiol concentrations and Lactobacillus abundance in any of the models. CONCLUSIONS:This study did not support a link between salivary estradiol levels and Lactobacillus abundance in healthy, reproductive-aged women with regular menstrual cycles. These findings do not imply that estradiol is not an important factor regulating the vaginal Lactobacillus, but suggest that variation in estradiol levels does not correlate with the abundance of these bacteria. Studies that measure estrogen levels in multiple samples rather than assume their concentrations based on menopausal status or cycle phase are necessary to better understand the hormonal regulation of vaginal microbiota.

BACKGROUND:Physical activity is a modifiable lifestyle factor known to reduce the risk of many diseases, including cancer, partly through improvement of immune function. Physical exercise activates innate and adaptive immunity, boosting the circulation and function of NK cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, key players in cancer surveillance. This study aims to assess the effect of moderate physical activity on NK cells, their subpopulations, and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, in young, healthy women. METHODS:The study included 141 healthy women aged 20-36. Physical activity was monitored using Fitbit accelerometers over two menstrual cycles, during which participants performed at least 180 minutes/week of moderate physical activity. Blood samples were collected to assess cytotoxic T lymphocytes, NK cells, their subpopulations, and NK cytotoxic activity via flow cytometry. Associations between physical activity and immune parameters, adjusting for age and body fat percentage, were analyzed by multiple linear regression models. RESULTS:A higher number of steps per day was positively associated with the proportion of CD56brightCD16+ NK cells (β = 0.22, p = 0.016), and minutes spent fairly active per day showed a positive association with CD56brightCD16- NK cells (β = 0.17, p = 0.051). Higher number of very active minutes per day was associated with stronger natural killing ability of NK cells (β = 0.27, p = 0.030) and with a smaller percentage change between natural and IL-2-activated cytotoxicity (β = -0.25, p = 0.048). No significant associations were observed for total NK cells or cytotoxic T lymphocytes. CONCLUSIONS:A longer-term moderate physical activity in healthy young women may enhance CD56bright NK cell subpopulations and natural NK cell cytotoxicity, while reducing responsiveness to IL-2 stimulation. Our findings provide insight into a better understanding of how physical activity affects immune functioning, which might be relevant for cancer prevention, including breast cancer, in healthy women.

Disgust in response to health threats may change depending on the phase of the menstrual cycle. These cycle-related shifts are thought to result from fluctuations in progesterone and estradiol, which influence both immune activity and behavioural responses to potential source of infections. We hypothesized that hormonal changes may modulate not only pathogen aversion but also food disgust. The study involved 63 Polish women between ages 20 and 35 (M = 27.50, SD = 4.24). The survey period encompassed the luteal and follicular phases, which were confirmed by the use of ovulation tests detecting rising luteinizing hormone levels. Food disgust was measured using the Food Disgust Scale and the Food Disgust Pictures Scale, while pathogen disgust was measured using photographs of potential infection sources. Results were analysed with Student's t-test and Bayesian t-tests. The findings indicated higher pathogen disgust in the luteal phase relative to the follicular phase, although the estimated difference was small. For food disgust, effect estimates were centred close to zero and characterised by substantial uncertainty, providing limited evidence for lack of systematic variation across menstrual cycle phases.

There is a widespread assumption that facial features could act as a biomarker of human developmental stability and thus provide an important cue to an individual's physical and mental health status. However, research to date shows mixed support for this assumption. This is the first review that explores the association between various aspects of health and facial features, namely symmetry, averageness, and sexual dimorphism in adults. We searched electronic databases including Web of Science, MEDLINE PubMed, Scopus, and Embase. We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) guidelines for reporting of our results. Of the 702 screened articles, 21 were eligible for inclusion. Studies presented various relationships between facial features and cardiovascular health; immunocompetence; oxidative stress level; cortisol level; reproductive health; cognitive health, and general physical health. This review results in an inconclusive answer to the question of whether facial features can serve as honest indicators of health. The results warrant caution when utilizing facial features as a biomarker of health status and biological condition of an individual. Protocol: Open Science Framework, https://osf.io/dv9pu/.

Paternal adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) have been recently linked to offspring's brain development. Yet, none of the previous studies in humans have explored the association between paternal ACEs and a child's attentional bias for facial expressions of emotion. Our study fills this gap. Data were collected from 239 fathers (mean age 32.15; SD 5.04) and their children at 8 months of age who were part of the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. Paternal ACEs were evaluated using the Trauma and Distress Scale (TADS) in five domains: emotional and physical neglect, emotional and physical abuse, and sexual abuse. In children, eye-tracking was used to study attentional engagement to emotional faces vs. non-faces and distractors, and to calculate face and fear bias indices. Hierarchical linear regression and the Mann-Whitney U test were used for analyses. A negative association between paternal sexual abuse and face bias was found in children (p = 0.043), when paternal postpartum anxiety and sex of the child were controlled, however the effect size was rather low. Additionally, daughters (n = 6) of sexually abused fathers expressed lower face bias (p = 0.02) and higher fear bias (p = 0.04) than daughters of sexually non-abused fathers. Our preliminary exploration suggests a potential intergenerational effect of paternal exposure to sexual abuse on the processing of facial expression among daughters at the age of 8 months, yet the results require further confirmatory analyses, especially in a larger study group of ACEs-exposed individuals.

Conditions during fetal development are crucial for a long-term health. Individuals with small size at birth are suggested to have energy-thrifty physiology, a tendency to conserve energy due to adaptations to undernutrition during early development. However, energy also could be saved by having low physical activity. We hypothesize that individuals born smaller are less physically active compared to those born larger. Data were collected from 136 healthy, urban women (mean age 26.6, SD 4.24) over 3 consecutive menstrual cycles. Cycle 1 involved usual physical activity, while in cycles 2 and 3 women were instructed to perform at least 180 min/week of moderate to vigorous activity. Birth weight and length were obtained from personal medical records, and physical activity was monitored using a Fitbit wristband accelerometers. For each woman, ponderal index (indicator of leanness at birth) was calculated. Smaller size at birth predicted lower total energy expenditure during adulthood. The ponderal index was positively associated with duration of vigorous physical activity across all cycles (cycle 1: p < 0.001; cycle 2: p = 0.011; cycle 3: p = 0.004), while the birth weight was positively related to total energy expenditure (cycle 1: p = 0.014; cycle 2: p = 0.008; cycle 3: p = 0.016). Fetal developmental conditions might be associated with physical activity levels in later life. Women born smaller have lower total energy expenditure and are less likely to engage in vigorous activity. These findings underscore the role of early life factors in shaping health-related behaviors and suggest that individuals born with smaller size may need additional support or tailored interventions to meet the recommended levels of physical activity.

OBJECTIVES:Female reproductive function is sensitive to energetic stress and reacts to negative energy balance with reproductive suppression. This sensitivity is important for understanding human reproduction from an evolutionary perspective and also for the prevention of chronic diseases, especially hormone-dependent cancers such as breast cancer. High estradiol and progesterone levels increase cancer risk, and regular exercise may lower these hormones and cumulative hormonal exposure. This study examined the effects of increased physical activity during consecutive menstrual cycles on estradiol, progesterone, and the frequency of ovulation in healthy women. METHODS:Data were collected from 135 healthy, urban women who participated in the project for three consecutive menstrual cycles. In cycle 1, participants maintained their habitual activity; in cycles 2 and 3, they were requested to engage in at least 180 min per week of moderate physical activity. Physical activity was measured with wristband accelerometers. Estradiol and progesterone were assessed from daily saliva samples in cycles 1 and 3. Ovulation was monitored using urinary luteinizing hormone tests. RESULTS:Average daily step counts increased by ~14% from cycle 1 to cycle 2, with no further rise in cycle 3. Greater increases in daily steps from cycle 1 to cycle 3 were significantly associated with lower progesterone levels in cycle 3, after adjusting for baseline activity, baseline hormone levels, and body fat. Physical activity did not have a significant effect on estradiol. The occurrence of ovulation declined from 70% in cycle 1 to 39% in cycle 3, but it was not related to step counts or their changes. CONCLUSIONS:This study confirmed that energy expenditure alone, even when not leading to negative energy balance, is sufficient to cause modest changes in ovarian function. Even moderate increases in physical activity can lower progesterone levels, reducing the chance of conception in a cycle and also the cumulative lifetime hormonal exposure. These findings highlight the importance of encouraging regular physical activity, particularly in premenopausal women, as a strategy to modulate hormone levels, maintain reproductive health, and potentially reduce the long-term risk of hormone-related cancers.

Objectives Sex steroid hormones are important not only for reproduction but also for many aspects of women’s health, including the risk of breast cancer. Physical activity has been shown to influence sex hormone levels in women. This study aimed to investigate a relationship between the average daily number of steps and the sex hormone (estradiol and progesterone) levels in premenopausal women. Materials and methods Data were collected from 85 healthy, urban women of reproductive age who performed at least 180 minutes/week of moderate physical activity for two complete menstrual cycles. Physical activity was measured using wrist bands. Estradiol and progesterone concentrations were measured in daily-collected saliva samples in the second menstrual cycle. Results There was a significant negative association between the average number of steps taken daily and salivary progesterone levels after adjusting for potential confounding factors (age, BMI). Women who took more than 10,000 steps a day had significantly lower progesterone levels compared to women who took less than 10,000 steps. The association between physical activity and estradiol levels was statistically insignificant. Discussion Our results indicate that taking at least 10,000 steps a day reduces progesterone levels, but this intensity of physical activity may not be high enough to affect estradiol levels. Daily step tracking is a valuable element of health promotion, but currently recommended levels of physical activity may not be high enough for healthy premenopausal women to significantly reduce both sex hormone levels and thus their risk of postmenopausal breast cancer.

Social support has been proposed as an important determinant of women's physical and emotional well-being during pregnancy and after childbirth. Our study aimed to examine the association between the risk of postpartum depression (PPD) and perceived social support during pregnancy. A web-based prospective study survey was conducted among Polish women. The level of social support was measured with the Berlin Social Support Scales during pregnancy. Four weeks after the birth the risk of PPD was assessed using the Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale. Data from 932 mothers aged 19-43 (mean 30.95; SD 3.83) were analyzed using multinomial logistic regression. Higher perceived available support (emotional and instrumental), currently received support (emotional, instrumental and informational), satisfaction with the support, and sum of score were all associated with lower risk of PPD, after controlling for selected covariates (woman's age, socioeconomic status, parity status, place of residency, education, child's Apgar score, type of delivery, complications during birth, kin assisting the labor, breastfeeding). Our results suggest that the more social support the pregnant woman receives, the lower is her risk of PPD. Since humans evolved as cooperative breeders, they are inherently reliant on social support to raise children and such allomaternal help could improve maternal well-being.

One of the most crucial determinants of early-life development is the experience of childhood adversities. However, limited evidence is available for how these experiences shape later-life reproductive outcomes in women. Here we test the association between early-life adversities and reproductive parameters in women. Post-reproductive women (N = 105; mean age = 59.7; SD = 10.09) were recruited at the Mogielica Human Ecology Study Site in Poland within a traditional population with a low prevalence of birth control usage and fully traced reproductive histories. Reproductive parameters, as well as exposure to early-life abuse and neglect, were assessed using questionnaires. Childhood adversity was associated negatively with age at menarche ( p = 0.009). Analyses on specific subtypes revealed that compared to women who did not experience any kind of early-life adversities in childhood, those who were exposed to emotional ( p = 0.007) and physical ( p = 0.023) neglect had an earlier age at menarche, those who experienced emotional abuse reported an earlier age at first birth ( p = 0.035), and those who were exposed to physical abuse gave birth to fewer number of sons ( p = 0.010). Our results suggest that women exposed to childhood adversities experience earlier physiological reproductive readiness and timing of the first birth, but their overall biological condition might be impaired as they bear fewer sons.

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the most common infections experienced by women. Previously, scalp and facial hair in men have been shown to inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Here we hypothesize that having hairy genitalia might protect women from UTI. This study investigated grooming habits and occurrence of UTIs in the past 12 months in 2409 women (aged 18–45). Women who reported removing all their pubic hair at least weekly were defined as extreme groomers (66.8%). We collected additional information on covariates including age, having a first UTI at or before age 15, spermicide use, having a new sex partner, and frequency of sexual intercourse during the past year. Extreme grooming was not associated with the risk of being diagnosed with UTI (OR = 1.17, 95% CI = 0.90–1.52), but was associated with a higher risk of recurrent UTIs, defined as three or more UTIs within 12 months (OR = 3.09, 95% CI = 1.35–7.06), after controlling for age, history of UTIs, and sexual practices. Other studies have found that hygienic purposes are the most common motivations for pubic hair removal. These results suggest that along with their pubes, women may be getting rid of important microbial niche and protection against recurrent UTIs.

OBJECTIVESThe level of fluctuating asymmetry is suggested as a putative signal of developmental stability, thus according to this theoretical framework more symmetric individuals should be in better biological condition and have greater reproductive potential. Here we hypothesize that women with more symmetric faces have more successful reproduction.METHODSData were collected from 164 postmenopausal Polish women. Facial photographs were taken and the overall facial asymmetry (OFA) was calculated. The associations between the OFA and reproductive parameters were analyzed using multiple regression models. Furthermore, the mediation analysis was conducted to test for the indirect effects of the OFA on reproductive success.RESULTSThere was a statistically significant relationship between the OFA and the number of children born, which was mediated by the age at first reproduction (p = 0.03), however, the size of the effect was rather low. Women with more symmetric faces had an earlier age at first reproduction and, in consequence, a greater number of children.DISCUSSIONAs fluctuating asymmetry is suggested to be established in utero, these findings shed light on the possible life-long importance of developmental conditions in shaping women's reproductive potential and performance.