Examining the trophic niche overlap of sympatric species is crucial for understanding fundamental concepts of community ecology and for the effective management of multi-species habitats within shared landscapes. Using plant (n = 85) and faecal (n = 300) samples collected in 2020-2021, the diet composition of the scimitar-horned oryx and the dorcas gazelle in the Sidi Toui National Park in Tunisia, was studied. Microhistological procedures combined with the use of n-alkanes and long-chain alcohols as faecal markers, were used to assess diet composition and the overlap of their trophic niches. During the dry season, the diet of the scimitar-horned oryx consisted primarily of Hyparrhenia hirta (L.) Stapf (35.6 %), while the gazelle's diet was dominated by Ziziphus lotus (L.) Lam. (66.4 %). In the wet season, Gymnocarpos decander Forssk. became the main dietary component for both antelope species. Pastoral species consumed by scimitar-horned oryx were richer in fiber fractions (neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent fiber) compared to those consumed by dorcas gazelles, which preferred species with high crude protein content. Our results show low trophic overlap between the two antelope species during both seasons, supporting their long-term coexistence in the park at current population densities.

Jatropha seed cake (JSC) derived from Jatropha curcas seeds is a by-product of biodiesel production and, due to its high protein content, has been considered as a potential animal feed ingredient. However, the presence of toxic compounds such as phorbol esters and other anti-nutritional factors limits its use in animal feeding. Several detoxification approaches have been used to tackle these constraints and this review aims to summarize the recent advances in JSC treatment aiming to enhance its potential as an animal feedstuff. The review first provides an overview of the structure and composition of phorbol esters and other anti-nutritional compounds, discussing its toxic effects on different animal species. It then explores several detoxification methodologies giving special emphasis to its effects on the nutritional composition of JSC and on the use of the treated substrate as a feed ingredient in fish, poultry, pigs, and ruminants, highlighting their growth performance, nutrient utilization, and animal health issues. Overall, the review concludes that these treatments hold great potential for the detoxification and utilization of JSC as an animal feed ingredient. However, further research is needed to optimize the treatment conditions, evaluate the economic feasibility, and assess the long-term effects of treated JSC on animal health and product quality.

Lentinula edodes, commonly known as shiitake mushroom, is renowned for its potential health advantages. This research delves into the often-overlooked by-product of shiitake cultivation, namely spent mushroom substrate (SMS), to explore its nutraceutical properties. The SMS samples were collected and subjected to different extraction methods, namely short or long agitation, and ultrasound-assisted extractions using different temperatures and distilled water or a 50% (v/v) ethanol as solvents. The extracts were tested for phenolic content (total phenols, ortho-diphenols, and flavonoids), antioxidant capacity (DPPH, 2,2-diphenyl-1 picrylhydrazyl; ABTS, 2,2’-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid; and FRAP, ferric reducing antioxidant power), and antibacterial activity. The different extraction methods revealed substantial variations (p < 0.05) in phenolic composition and antioxidant capacity. The highest phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were achieved using 24 h extraction, agitation, 50 °C, and ethanol as the solvent. Furthermore, the extracted compounds displayed antibacterial activity in specific tested bacterial strains. This study highlights the nutraceutical potential of L. edodes’ SMS, positioning it as a valuable dietary supplement for animal nutrition, with emphasis on its prebiotic properties. Hence, this research unveils the promising health benefits of SMS in both human and animal nutrition.

In this comprehensive review, we delve into the myriad applications of spent mushroom substrate (SMS) in agricultural contexts, with a particular emphasis on its role in fostering sustainable poultry production. Our examination spans three key domains: the use of SMS in fertilizers, its impact on environmental factors and gas emissions, and its contribution to poultry nutrition. This review synthesizes findings from multiple studies that underscore the potential of composted SMS as a viable alternative to conventional inorganic fertilizers, effectively meeting crop nutrient needs while mitigating groundwater contamination risks. Moreover, we highlight the substantial environmental advantages associated with the utilization of SMS and poultry waste, including reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and the promotion of sustainable waste management practices. Additionally, we explore the promising outcomes of integrating SMS into animal feed formulations, which have demonstrated significant enhancements in livestock growth performance and overall health. In sum, this review underscores the versatility and untapped potential of SMS as a valuable agricultural resource, with a particular focus on its role in advancing sustainable practices, optimizing nutrient management, and harnessing the value of organic waste materials, especially in the context of poultry production.

Several polymers are researched for tendon repair as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polylactic acid (PLA). These are biocompatible and useful in scaffolding repair though with minimal success due to long-term failure. There is a need to improve such scaffolds' design and physical-chemical nature. This work concerns surface functionalization of polymeric braids (PET and PLA) that fulfill the high mechanical demands of tissues such as tendons. The functionalization aims to incorporate amine groups in the braids' surface, improve cell adhesion, and consequently, the poor healing rate of these tissues and the biointegration of the braids. Two approaches are compared: the direct application of NH3 plasma and the surface grafting of EDA after O-2 plasma activation. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) shows that amine groups are effectively introduced onto the samples' surfaces. Besides, the plasma parameters chosen do not compromise the topography and tensile behavior of the braids. Resazurin assay and scanning electron microscopy show that the NH3 treatment improves cell-biomaterial interaction as improved cell adhesion and proliferation are observed. Both approaches are safe for biomedical applications. The NH3 plasma approach is more environmentally friendly, faster, and easier to scale-up, showing potential for application in the final hybrid medical device.

n-Alkane and long-chain alcohol (LCOH) profiles of needle cuticular waxes of nine provenances of three Pinus species (P. taeda. P. pinaster and P. pinea) were determined and their chemotaxonomic importance was studied. n-Alkanes concentrations were very low in all Pinus spp. A lack of ability of these compounds to differentiate Pinus spp. and their provenances was observed. LCOH concentrations were much higher, being nonacosan-10-ol (10-C29 -OH) the most abundant one in all Pinus spp. Total LCOH concentrations varied (P<0.001) between Pinus spp. with P. taeda presenting the highest (P<0.05) value and P. pinea the lowest one. Differences in LCOH profiles were large (P<0.001) and allowed separation of Pinus spp. in the Principal Component Analysis (PCA). Although a noticeable separation of individuals was not observed. cluster analysis on LCOH concentrations allowed a clear distinction between species, indicating their potential to be used as chemotaxonomic markers to differentiate provenances of different Pinus spp.

There is a lack of knowledge on the European bison (Bison bonasus L. 1758) foraging behavior that is essential to develop an appropriate feeding strategy for each specific situation (captive or wild). Utilization of faecal markers may allow us to fill this gap, accommodating animal welfare and intensive labour issues that are major limitations of traditional techniques. This study aimed to evaluate the potential of n-alkane markers (C25 to C33) to estimate diet composition, feed intake its digestibility on three captive maleBison bonasus fed on known amounts of straw, and a beeswax labelled concentrate feed. Feeds and faecal samples were taken daily during 10 days. Prior to calculations, faecal concentrations were corrected for incomplete faecal recovery (FR). Results indicated that 4–5 days were sufficient for these markers to reach a steady concentration in bison faeces. Accurate estimates of diet composition and feed intake were obtained not differing from known values. Results suggest that faecal recovery of n-alkanes in bison are incomplete and tend to increase with carbon-chain length. Apparent dry-matter digestibility (DMDap) estimates were affected by the n-alkane (C27, C29,C31, and C33) used in the calculations. Estimates of DMDap obtained with application of FR corrections were 6.3% higher than those without correction. Results indicate that feeding a known amount of beeswax labelled supplement can be successfully used to estimate composition, feed intake, and its digestibility, requiring the application of n-alkane FR data.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of the incorporation of untreated grape stalks (UGS) and fungi-treated grape stalks (Lentinula edodes, TGS) in rabbits’ diets. The control group was fed with a control diet without grape stalks (C), two experimental groups were fed on diets with 5% and 10% incorporation of UGS (5UGS and 10UGS), and two with 5% and 10% incorporation of TGS (5TGS and 10TGS). Rabbits fed with TGS diets showed higher daily weight gain (p = 0.034), feed conversion rate (p = 0.002), carcass weight (p = 0.038), and reference carcass weight (p = 0.03) when compared to the control diet. Moreover, animals fed with TGS diets showed an increase in the caecum (p = 0.015) and small intestine (p = 0.021) lengths and in the total volatile fatty acid content (p = 0.005) compared to animals fed UGS diets. Blood triglyceride levels were lower in animals fed with TGS diets compared to UGS (p = 0.005) and C (p ≤ 0.001) diets (12% and 19% lower, respectively), and a trend to lower cholesterol levels was observed (p = 0.071). Meat from rabbits fed with TGS diets had higher levels of linoleic acid, γ-linolenic, ∑ω-6, ∑PUFA, and ∑PUFA/∑SFA ratio compared to rabbits fed with the C diet. Results indicated that grape stalks (UGS and TGS) could be effectively used as an alternative raw material in rabbits’ diets without compromising animal performance.

n-Alkanes and long-chain alcohols (LCOH) have been used as faecal markers to assess the feeding behaviour of both wild and domestic herbivore species. However, their chemical analysis is time-consuming and expensive, making it necessary to develop more expeditious methodologies to evaluate concentrations of these markers. This work aimed to evaluate the use of Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) technology in the near infrared (NIR) and mid infrared (MIR) intervals, for the determination of n-alkane and LCOH concentrations of different plant species and faecal samples of domestic herbivores. Spectra of 33 feed samples, namely L. perenne, T. repens, U. gallii, short heathers (mixture of Erica spp. and Calluna vulgaris), improved pasture grasses (mixture of L. perenne and A. capillaris), heath grasses (mixture of P. longifolium and A. curtissii), improved pasture species (mixture of L. perenne, T. repens and A. capillaris) and herbaceous species (mixture of all herbaceous species found in the plot)) and 181 faecal samples (cattle and horses) were recorded. In order to develop calibrations for the prediction of n-alkanes and LCOH concentrations, partial least squares (PLS) regression was used. Regarding the models developed for plant species, the best results were observed for the calibrations using NIR. The best external validation coefficients of determination (R(2)v) obtained were 0.90 and 0.79 for LCOH and n-alkanes, respectively. For faecal samples, in the NIR interval, results indicate similar external validation predictions (R(2)v) for both animal species (0.64). On the contrary, in the MIR interval, differences between cattle (0.70) and horses (0.57) faecal samples in R(2)v were observed. Regarding the models created for both animal species faeces, LCOH (C-26-OH and C-30-OH concentrations ranging from 713.3 to 4451.9 mg/kg DM, respectively; R(2)v values ranging from 0.72 to 0.95) and n-alkanes (C31 and C33 concentrations ranging from 112.8 to 643.2 mg/kg DM, respectively; R(2)v values ranging from 0.19 to 0.90) present in higher concentrations tended to be those with better estimates. Results obtained suggest that the selection of the technique to be used may depend on the type of matrix, being the homogeneity of the matrices one of the most important factors for its success. In order to improve the accuracy and robustness of the models created for the estimation of the concentrations of these markers using these methodologies, the database (greater variability) used for the calibrations of these models must be increased.

The assessment of feed intake in stabled horses is a difficult task to accomplish. Faecal markers, namely n-alkanes, have been used successfully for the estimation of this important nutritional parameter. This usually involves the dosing of synthetic n-alkanes via different matrices, a laborious task that may also influence the animal normal foraging behaviour. An experiment was conducted to evaluate a relative simple methodology to quantify feed intake in horses, based on the provision of measured amounts of a concentrate supplement labelled with beeswax and the utilisation of n-alkanes as faecal markers. Four Lusitano horses were used in three consecutive experimental periods. Animals were fed on cereal straw and different proportions of a previously prepared beeswax-labelled concentrate supplement (BLCS; 0.05, 0.10 and 0.20, DM basis). Beeswax labelling was performed to provide a distinct n-alkane profile for the concentrate feed. Prior to feed intake calculations, proportions of labelled concentrate supplement in the diets were estimated using n-alkanes C25 to C33 by least-square optimisation procedures. Results showed that the beeswax labelling resulted in high n-alkane concentrations in the concentrate feed, especially for the odd-chain n-alkanes. Estimates of diet composition did not differ from the measured values, except for the diet with highest BLCS incorporation, with an underestimation of 10%. DM intake was accurately estimated by the “labelled supplement method” in all diets. However, for the lowest BLCS incorporation, DM intake was underestimated by 16% whereas for the higher levels of BLCS in the diet, measured and estimated DM intake values were almost identical with a slight overestimation of only 0.7 and 0.2% (10 and 20% of BLCS, respectively). Results indicate that both diet composition and feed intake can be accurately estimated in horses using the “labelled supplement method”, even when very low levels of the labelled concentrate supplement are included in the animals’ diet. This method eliminates the need for daily dosing with external synthetic markers, providing advantages in terms of minimising animal management and interference with their normal foraging behaviour.

Archaeological excavations conducted in Quinta do Almaraz (Almada, Portugal) between 1986 and 2001 have allowed to identify a settlement with an important Iron Age occupation. These interventions provided a large assemblage of faunal remains and its study has enabled a detailed analysis of the diet, lifestyle, and habits of the people who lived in Almaraz during the 1st millennium BC. The most abundant mammal species are sheep and goat, followed by pig. Cattle and wild species, such as red deer, are also present. We likewise highlight a great variety of bird species, including the first remains of domestic galliformes, up to then an exotic animal in Europe. Regarding malacofauna, we highlight the prevalence of clam, cockle, mussel, winkle, and limpet.

This work aimed to evaluate the potential of three fungi strains, Lentinula edodes, Pleurotus eryngii, and Pleurotus citrinopileatus, to degrade lignin and enhance the nutritive value of grape stalks (GS). The GS was inoculated with the fungi and incubated under solid-state fermentation at 28 °C and 85% relative humidity for 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, and 42 days, in an incubation chamber. The influence of the treatments was evaluated by analyzing the potential modifications in the chemical composition, in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) and enzymatic kinetics. An increase (p < 0.001) in the crude protein content was observed in the GS treated with L. edodes and P. citrinopileatus at 42 days of incubation (50 and 75%, respectively). The treatment performed with L. edodes decreased (p < 0.001) lignin content by 52%, and led to higher (p < 0.001) IVOMD values at 42 days of incubation. By contrast, P. eryngii did not affect lignin content and IVOMD. A higher activity of all enzymes was also detected for the treatment with L. edodes. Results indicated that L. edodes has a great potential to enhance the nutritive value of GS as an animal feed, due to its lignin degradation selectivity.

The nutritional composition of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) has been related to the prevention of diverse metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. Previous works have shown that cowpea immature pods exhibited higher phenolic composition and antioxidant activity as compared to immature and dry seeds. This work aims to develop a cowpea immature pod ready-to-eat purée for the elderly to promote the maintenance of their muscle mass and synthesis of neurotransmitters implicated in depression disorder and sleep quality. In a preliminary approach, this study intends to assess the phenolic content, antioxidant capacity, nutritional composition, and essential and non-essential amino acids of the cowpea at two different growth stages: immature pods and green seeds. Immature pods showed a significantly higher content of total phenols (11.73 ± 0.43 mg AG/g dry weight), ortho-diphenols (13.18 ± 1.26 mg GA/g dw), and flavonoids (6.04 ± 0.51 mg CAT/g dw) as compared to the green seeds. The higher antioxidant capacity was also displayed by the pods (ABTS•⁺ (2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) radical): 0.05 ± 0.00 mmol Trolox/g dw, DPPH• (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhidrazyl radical): 0.04 ± 0.00 mmol Trolox/g dw, FRAP (Ferric Reduction Antioxidant Power): 0.04 ± 0.00 mol Trolox/g dw) in contrast with the green seeds. Immature pods demonstrated the lowest crude fat content (1.74 ± 0.03%) and the highest content of crude protein (27.48 ± 1.05%) and of insoluble dietary fibre (35.63 ± 0.53%). To our knowledge, we present the first study concerning the nutritional composition of cowpea immature pod, suggesting that it has remarkable potential to be included in the development of a new functional food product for the elderly.

Legume stovers may be an important feedstuff resource for animals, especially in the Mediterranean production systems. However, these stovers contain antinutritional factors, such as lignin, that may affect the growth performance of the animals. Studies with white-rot fungi showed their ability to increase the nutritional value of several agricultural wastes through changes in lignin structure facilitating the access to structural polysaccharides that are potentially digestible. This contributes to a better utilization of the diet's nutrients and, consequently, to a better animal performance and health. The present work aimed at evaluating the effect of cowpea stover (Vigna unguiculata), untreated (US) or treated (TS) with Pleurotus citrinopileatus, on performance, digestibility, health and meat quality of growing rabbits. The TS treatment resulted from the inoculation of cowpea stover with Pleurotus citrinopileatus mycelium under solid-state fermentation for 22 days. Five experimental diets incorporating 0 (C), 50 (US50) and 100 g/kg (US100) of US and 50 (TS50) and 100 g/kg (TS100) of TS were used. Trials were conducted using 80 rabbits with 35 days old. The animals were randomly assigned to one of the 5 treatments and were slaughtered at 63 days of age. The incorporation of cowpea stover did not affect animal growth performances (mean daily weight gain of 44.4 g/kg; mean feed intake of 154 g/day; mean feed conversion rate of 3.46) or digestibility (mean dry matter digestibility of 564.8 g/kg; mean neutral detergent fibre digestibility of 369.6 g/kg). The orthogonal contrasts showed that the animals fed with US had a final live weight 5.0% lower (P = 0.04) than the ones fed TS (2214 vs. 2323 g). The TS diet allowed a 17.4% reduction (P = 0.03) in blood cholesterol levels. No influence (P > 0.05) of treatments was detected for carcass traits (mean chilled dressing out percentage of 59%) and meat quality parameters. There was a decrease in the caecal microbiota similarity index (P = 0.01) between US and TS diets. The incorporation up to 100 g/kg of treated cowpea stover with Pleurotus citrinopileatus in the rabbits' compound feed showed potential to overcome the detrimental effect that the incorporation of the US has on the final live weight of growing rabbits. Further research on the specific effect of TS diets on cholesterol blood levels and shifts on the microbial population of the gastrointestinal tract should be assessed.

The following article intends to clarify the importance of the Social Work for the understanding of the conditioning of children's free time that attend the 1st cycle in the parish of São Domingos de Rana.A qualitative methodological approach was used, resorting to an explorative interview, compiled by a sample of visions and knowledges of essential interdisciplinary areas for the established goals.The obtained results demonstrated a development of family structures, with conjugality marked by the paradox of the existence of affection and quality time between parents and children.The sociodemographic features of families residents in the parish are highlighted by its origin and characterised by a heterogeneous population, active in society and with economic and social stability.The institutions that respond to leisure time in the parish are classified by schooling, with the school becoming more representative, in response to the needs of parents.The family is highlighted in an educational context and in a labour market context, in the sense that its articulation conditions their performance.

Grape stalks, an inedible lignocellulosic residue from winemaking and agro-industrial grape juice production, can be valorized as a source of bioactive compounds and as feedstock for the saccharification and bioconversion of soluble sugars. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) by six white-rot fungi was applied as pretreatment. Fiber composition, free radical scavenging activity, four ligninolytic, and three hydrolytic enzyme activities were determined. Saccharification kinetics, yield, and productivity were evaluated and complemented with scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) quantification of monosaccharides, and principal component analysis (PCA). After SSF, the biomass exhibited a drastic free radical scavenging activity decrease and the main enzymes produced were manganese-dependent peroxidase and xylanase. Scanning electron microscopy revealed the erosion of cell walls, and PCA exhibited a negative correlation between saccharification, and neutral detergent fiber and acid detergent lignin. Phlebia rufa pretreated biomass gave the highest sugars yield and productivity, representing a nearly three-fold increase compared to untreated samples. Also, monosaccharides quantification revealed that the 1:1 ratio of glucose to the sum of xylose plus galactose changes to the value of 2:1 after pretreatment. In this work, and for the first time, P. rufa proved to be an effective pretreatment of grape stalks for the saccharification and further bioconversion into value-added chemicals. In addition, lignocellulolytic enzymes were also produced through SSF.

The grape is a matrix rich in bioactive compounds and its production generates large quantities of byproducts, such as grape stems, which, to date, present low commercial value. However, there is a growing interest in the application of this material as a source of phenolic compounds. Therefore, the present study aims at assessing the phytochemical profile of (poly)phenolic extracts of white Portuguese grape stem varieties produced in the Regiao Demarcada do Douro (Portugal). The antioxidant activity determined by several assays, as well as the antimicrobial activity using the disc diffusion method against human gastrointestinal pathogenic bacteria of the hydromethanolic extracts, were evaluated. This work presents very positive results as the rich composition in phenolic compounds (94.71-123.09 mg g(-1) and 0.02-73.79 mg g(-1) for the total phenol content and for individual phenolics, respectively) presented by grape stems can explain the high antioxidant (0.37-1.17 mmol Trolox g(-1)) and antimicrobial activities against, essentially, Gram-positive bacteria, and in some cases with higher efficacy than commercial antibiotics. Thus, demonstrating that this wine by-product should deserve greater attention from the pharmaceutical industries due to its excellent biological properties and characteristics not yet applied. (C) 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.

Although agro-industrial co-products have low economic value as foods for human consumption, they may have potential value as animal feedstuffs. This experiment was carried out to evaluate the effect of cowpea stover inclusion in rabbits’ diet on growth performance and nutrient digestibility. A total of 180 animals were randomly assigned to 3 treatments (CS0, CS2 or CS4, with no inclusion, 20 or 40 g/kg of cowpea stover, respectively). Animal performance was evaluated between the 53rd and 67th d of age in 48 animals per treatment. The coefficients of total tract apparent digestibility (CTTAD) of organic matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fibre and gross energy were measured between 63 to 67 d of age in 12 animals per treatment. Results showed that, in general, CTTAD values were not affected by the inclusion of cowpea stover. Nevertheless, a trend towards a decrease in crude protein digestibility (P=0.0848) was observed when including cowpea stover. This had a negative influence on digestible protein (P=0.0240) and on the ratio between digestible protein and digestible energy (P=0.0231) for diet CS4. Rabbits showed normal figures for growth rate (on av. 46.8 g/d), feed intake (on av. 168.3 g/d) and feed conversion ratio (on av. 3.61). Future studies should assess the possibility of incorporating higher levels of cowpea stover while analysing the economic impact of this inclusion.

The objective of this study was to compare the diet selection and productive performance of beef cattle (Asturiana de los Valles breed) and crossbred horses grazing on heather-gorse shrublands with different available surface of improved pasture (IP): 80% (IP80) or 25% (IP25). Twelve and 10 lactating dams per species with their offspring were managed in IP80 (19 ha) and IP25 (22 ha), respectively, during two grazing seasons (spring-autumn). Visual recordings at IP25 indicated that horses grazed for longer than cattle. Both species grazed preferentially on IP and increased the utilization of shrublands as season advanced and available sward height in the IP area decreased. Diet composition estimates using faecal markers showed greater dietary percentages of white clover in cows than in mares during spring-summer. During autumn cows selected greater percentages of heather and lower of gorse than mares. Mares achieved more favourable body weight (BW) changes than cows during the whole grazing season, although differences were mainly confined to IP80. Calves showed higher BW gains than foals during the whole grazing season, with scarce differences between vegetation mixtures. Mares compete with cattle for the use of quality pastures, negatively affecting BW recoveries of cows when both species graze together.

This work characterizes the adsorption of aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) by dry micronized olive pomace (OliPom) and grape stems (GrapStem). Their performance was compared with that of three other materials, activated carbon (ActCarb), bentonite (Bent), and a commercial product (ComProd). Experiments were conducted in vitro at several pH values using buffer solutions. For OTA and ZEA, the strongest adsorbent was ActCarb, with 5 mg/mL being sufficient to bind > 99% of all the mycotoxins. For AFB 1 , ComProd and Bent were the most effective adsorbents, as 0.5 mg/mL bound > 95% of this mycotoxin. Among the two agro by-products, GrapStem was the strongest binder, with 10 mg/mL being sufficient to bind at least 90% of all the mycotoxins (except OTA at pH 7). OliPom was the least efficient material, but at a concentration of 30 mg/mL, its performance was similar to GrapStem. Adsorption isotherms were calculated, and ActCarb showed the maximum adsorption capacity ( Q max ), with values that ranged from 19 to 24 μg/mg for pH 2 and from 17 to 20 μg/mg for pH 7. ComProd, Bent, and GrapStem showed more similar Q max between them (1.4–4.4 μg/mg for pH 2 and 0.5–4.8 μg/mg for pH 7).