The eastern spotted skunk ( Spilogale putorius ) is a small mesocarnivore that has experienced population decline across its range, whereas populations of the larger striped skunk ( Mephitis mephitis ) have remained stable. Both skunk species occur in Florida, USA, but their occupied ranges have diverged over time, with the range of the spotted skunk markedly declining. Determining their ecological niches within the framework of species distribution models (SDMs) can help to understand their habitat use and landscape‐scale interactions in Florida. We developed SDMs for both species using the presence‐only model Maxent, incorporating occurrences collected from 2017–2022 from community science and research data, along with 12 environmental variables representing various landscape features (e.g., land cover, topography, fire history). We quantified the area of predicted habitat for each species, estimated their spatial overlap, and measured potential impacts from external pressures (e.g., projected urbanization, sea level rise). Owing to their range decline and habitat specialization, we expected a smaller predicted area of habitat for eastern spotted skunk, with higher potential for external pressures and minimal overlap with striped skunk habitat. Our results indicated habitat area was smaller for eastern spotted skunk (24,333 km 2 ) than striped skunk (31,964 km 2 ), with minimal spatial overlap (14%). We found that eastern spotted skunk distribution occurred mostly in coastal and southern areas of Florida and was positively influenced by scrub‐shrubland cover and vegetation diversity and negatively influenced by cropland and developed areas. Striped skunk distribution mostly occurred in northern and interior areas of Florida and was positively influenced by wooded edges, prairie, and wetland cover. Less‐rugged topography was important to both species. Projected trends in urbanization and sea level rise more greatly threaten the habitats of eastern spotted skunk than striped skunk. We provide a detailed habitat map and a much‐needed description of the ecological niche of the eastern spotted skunk in Florida, which differs from that of the striped skunk. Overall, this study can inform both statewide and species‐wide conservation and management decisions for both skunk species.

anagers often use mechanical disturbance in conjunction with, or in place of, prescribed fire to maintain pyrogenicplant communities in the southeastern United States. However, information on the effects of mechanical fire-surrogateson disturbance-dependent wildlife is lacking. The Florida scrub-jayAphelocoma coerulescensis an endemic bird speciesreliant on Florida scrub, a pyrogenic shrubland plant community narrowly distributed on sandy ridges in peninsularFlorida. Ocala National Forest in north central Florida supports the largest remaining population of Florida scrub-jays,and historically, maintenance of most scrub habitat at the site is through the commercial harvest (clearcutting) ofmature sand pinesPinus clausa. Recently, a habitat restoration program established Scrub-Jay Management Areas byconverting clearcut stands to scrub maintained in an early-successional condition by prescribed fire. We studied Floridascrub-jays in Scrub-Jay Management Areas (2016-2023) to better understand how family-group density changed overtime since fire management compared with time since harvest in clearcut stands. In scrub treated with prescribed fire,Florida scrub-jay family-group density increased more rapidly postdisturbance and was consistently higher than inclearcut stands. Based on model predictions, the maximum mean density of family groups occurred at 8.5 y postfire(11.8 family groups/41 ha) in Scrub-Jay Management Areas and 6.2 y postharvest (5.5 family groups/41 ha) in clearcutstands. Our study provides the first quantitative data on the response of Florida scrub-jay populations to new forestmanagement practices in this large and critically important population. These data provide an essential component fordeveloping population models for Ocala National Forest under current conditions and for modeling the potentialeffects of future management decisions

Understanding the distribution of wildlife species is key to their effective conservation and management. Comparing distributions of similar species can provide valuable insights regarding range overlap and how overlap changes over time. We estimated the geographic distributions of 2 skunk species, the eastern spotted skunk (Spilogale putorius) and the striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis), in Florida, USA, for historical (1997-2002) and contemporary (2017-2022) periods using opportunistic presence data (e.g., public sightings, camera trap records, live trap records). For each species, we produced range models at 2 levels: a generalized boundary (range extent) using a concave hull and a more detailed delineation (occupied range) using kernel density estimation. We expected spotted skunk range to decline (as it has elsewhere), striped skunk range to remain stable, and both species' ranges to have a relatively high geographic overlap. The contemporary models show spotted skunk range encompassing 26% of Florida land area, primarily in southern and coastal Florida, and striped skunk range encompassing 55% of Florida land area, primarily in northern and interior Florida. Range size for spotted skunk declined by approximately 30% between periods, although range expansion occurred in some localized areas. Range size for striped skunk was stable over time, with some localized contractions and expansions. Considerable temporal shifts occurred in skunk distribution, where only 34% of spotted skunk and 54% of striped skunk occupied range remained spatially constant between periods. Divergent geographic use between the 2 species increased over time, yielding a low range overlap of 23% between their contemporary occupied ranges. Our study fills a spatial data gap in skunk research, can inform state- or species-level conservation decisions for spotted skunk, and supports the need for further research on habitat requirements of skunks in Florida.

American black bears (Ursus americanus) in Florida have increased in abundance from historically low numbers and currently number >4,000 across 7 subpopulations. Biologists monitor the range of black bears to track their recovery for conservation and management efforts. We estimated geographic range of black bears in Florida for historical (2001-2010) and contemporary (2011-2020) periods using 12 sources of occurrence data collected from wildlife professionals and the public. We reduced data sets by subsampling protocols to account for localized spatiotemporal biases and for possible differences in sampling effort from increases in the human population between modeling periods. We developed models at 2 levels: a generalized boundary (range extent) and a more detailed delineation (occupied range). We developed range extent using a concave hull model and occupied range using kernel density estimation with a corresponding 97.5% isopleth. Between modeling periods, range extent increased by 13.4% and occupied range increased by 11.3%, with both range levels expanding and contracting in certain areas. The ranges indicated improved connectivity among bear subpopulations. We also produced a range map for research, management, and public use built upon contemporary data that partitioned the state into 4 levels representing the relative frequency of bear use (frequent, common, occasional, and rare). Range map levels at the occupied range, and especially frequent use areas, help focus bear research efforts (e.g., placement of hair corrals), management efforts (e.g., assess varying levels of risk to the public of bear conflicts), and conservation efforts (e.g., focusing habitat protection in areas with high use by bears).

Light pollution caused by poorly directed artificial lighting has increased globally in recent years. Artificial lights visible along marine turtle nesting beaches can disrupt natural brightness cues used by hatchling turtles to orient correctly to the ocean for their offshore migrations. Natural barriers, such as tall dunes and dense vegetation, that block coastal and inland lights from the beach may reduce this disruption. However, coastal areas are often managed toward human values, including the trimming of vegetation to improve ocean views. We used viewshed models to determine how reducing the dune vegetation height (specifically that of seagrape, Cocoloba uvifera) might increase the amount of artificial light from upland buildings that reaches a marine turtle nesting beach in Southeast Florida. We incorporated three data sets (LiDAR data, turtle nest locations, and field surveys of artificial lights) into a geographic information system to create viewsheds of lighting from buildings across 21 vegetation profiles. In 2018, when most seagrape patches had been trimmed to <1.1 m tall, female loggerhead turtles nested in areas with potential for high light exposure based on a cumulative viewshed model. Viewshed models using random (iterative simulations) and nonrandom selections of buildings revealed that untrimmed seagrape heights (mean = 3.1 m) and especially taller vegetation profiles effectively reduced potential lighting exposure from three building heights (upper story, midstory, and ground level). Even the tallest modeled vegetation, however, would fail to block lights from the upper stories of some tall buildings. Results from this study can support management decisions regarding the trimming of beach dune vegetation, any associated changes in the visibility of artificial lighting from the nesting areas, and modifications to existing lighting needed to mitigate light exposure.

Measuring the body mass of American black bears (Ursus americanus) can be challenging because of their large size, and if equipment to weigh individuals is undersupplied. Our purpose was to estimate body mass of Florida black bears (U. a. floridanus) by developing models (linear and non-linear) that use morphometrics that can be reasonably easy to obtain (e.g., chest girth and body length). We compared our models with a previously published model for Florida black bears to determine whether prediction of body mass could be improved. Our models were built with current data (2012-2018; n = 532) collected across Florida, USA, by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission. We partitioned the data into training and test subsets using 10-fold cross-validation with 100 iterations. Model fit was assessed by comparing root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and coefficient of determination (R-2) of observed and predicted values. Based on RMSE, MAE, and R-2, our optimal regression model for predicting mass (M) of both female and male bears used both chest girth (G) and total body length (L) as predictors in the non-linear form M = aG(b) x L-c. Our optimal model was a better fit than the previously published model when both were applied to the full data sets from the current and previous study and to an independent data set. We applied our optimal non-linear regression models built from live bear data to morphological data collected from bear carcasses (n = 544), mainly road mortalities. We found that the live-bear models acceptably estimated mass of dead bears for both sexes. Estimating the mass of live and dead bears can expedite handling time of individuals, fill in data gaps, and provide valuable information on the Florida black bear; our approach may be applicable to American black bears range-wide.

In Florida, the population status of the Alligator Gar Atractosteus spatula is unknown, and harvest of this species was prohibited in 2006. Although abundance estimates are needed, first information about its habitat use and life history is required. We examined movement, habitat use, and home range of Alligator Gars in the Escambia River, an unregulated coastal river in Florida. Twenty-two fish (TL range = 92-193 cm) were captured by using large-mesh gill nets and were tagged with external transmitters. Detachment of tags resulted in 16 fish being tracked for the study (tag retention time = 2-19 months). Seasonal movements of fish were monitored by active daytime tracking and via fixed-station receivers to determine home and core ranges. Results suggested that Alligator Gar movement was seasonal and related to water temperature. Mean linear home ranges and core ranges were each approximately five times smaller during the cold season (water temperature <= 15 degrees C) than during the warm season (> 15 degrees C). Diel movement and habitat information was collected (N = 8 Alligator Gars per season) from arrays of fixed-station receivers that recorded data continuously for 24 h during deployment. Individuals moved little and at a lower travel rate during 24-h periods in the cold season, whereas they became highly mobile during the warm season, moving at a higher travel rate. Alligator Gars spent proportionally more time in main-channel habitat (62.5%) during the warm season and in off-channel habitat (84.2%) during the cold season, but no difference in diel use of these habitats was evident between seasons. An understanding of movement patterns and habitat use could lead to increased catch, thereby improving the accuracy of abundance estimates and the reliability of population assessments. Comprehensive knowledge of these behaviors should help to guide conservation and management efforts in regulated and unregulated rivers throughout the Alligator Gar's range.

Human—bear interactions in Florida are becoming more common as human populations grow and as the range of Ursus americanus floridanus (Florida Black Bear) increases and bears adapt to finding food in a human-modified environment. The number of calls to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC) concerning human—bear interactions increased from approximately 1000 calls in 2000 to more than 4000 in 2010. Almost 70% of the calls received in 2010 were related to bears consuming garbage or other unnatural foods (e.g., pet food) in residential areas. Therefore, the FWC used telephone surveys in 2 Florida communities to evaluate the effectiveness of using 2 types of bear-resistant trash cans. Surveys revealed a significant reduction in the number of bears consuming garbage and of other human—bear interactions over a 1-year period and, consequently, a positive attitude from residents toward using these trash cans. Apportioning the cost of issuing bear-resistant trash cans, however, remains a concern. This study will help the FWC understand the efficacy and acceptability of using bear-resistant trash cans to reduce human—bear conflicts in support of long-term management of Black Bears in Florida.

We studied the denning chronology, den type, and den-site characteristics of Ursus americanus floridanus (Florida Black Bear) in Ocala National Forest (ONF) and the adjacent residential area of Lynne, FL. We monitored 35 radio-collared females for 62 den years from 1999 through 2003. Den entry dates did not differ between parturient females (females that gave birth to cubs during the winter) and nonparturient (solitary females or females with yearlings) (P = 0.139). Females with cubs exited dens later ( P < 0.001), and denned longer (mean = 113 ± 3.3 days) than females without cubs (mean = 54 ± 6.0 days; P < 0.001). Among females with cubs, primiparous females entered dens on average 28 days later than multiparous females (P = 0.003); however, exit date and duration of denning did not differ between the two groups. Female bears denned in ground nests most frequently ( n = 45), followed by excavated dens ( n = 7); one female used a tree den. Compositional analysis revealed that denning habitat selection occurred in ONF, with sand pine as the preferred denning habitat, followed by swamp and pine flatwoods habitats. Denning habitat selection was not evident in Lynne, although the majority of females denned in swamp habitats. Parturient females often denned in ecotones with dense vegetation, due perhaps to the fact that such ecotones offer better protection to the female and her cubs from potential predators and weather elements. Habitat management activities should be limited during peak denning of parturient females, from late December to mid-April, particularly in Sand Pine xeric oak and pine flatwood swamp ecotones.

Rainfall, surface water levels, location within the state, and area and types of habitats (n = 29) surrounding wood stork Mycteria americana colonies in North and Central Florida were analyzed at 10-km, 20-km, and 30-km radii around each colony to examine their relationship with fledging rate and number of nests during 2003-2005. Seven variables within 10 km, 14 variables within 20 km, and 6 variables within 30 km of colonies were correlated with fledging rates. Fledging rate and number of nests were significantly associated with both wetland and nonwetland area and habitats. Among all the variables, fledging rate was most strongly associated with rainfall during the preceding 12-24 mo. Both larger colonies and colonies in North Florida had higher fledging rates. Although some variables had a positive association and other variables had a negative correlation with fledging rates, results were not consistent across all three radii, which suggests that the effects of hydrologic and habitat variables differs with increasing distance from a colony. The size of a wood stork colony was sensitive to a larger number of variables and varied by distances from the colony. Colonies were smaller in the northern part of Florida, and coastal colonies were larger than interior colonies. Because wood storks often use ephemeral foraging sites closer to a colony early in the season and those sites may not be available later in the season, wood storks may shift to alternate, more distant sites and habitats later in the season. A hypothesis is proposed whereby wood storks establish their colonies using proximate clues of prey availability based on the effects of past rainfall and certain preferred habitat types. These proximate cues to prey availability and foraging substrate surrounding a colony are detected by wood storks before the onset and during the initial nesting season. However, the long-term stability of a colony may ultimately be determined by yearly rainfall patterns and habitat variables at larger distances and by fledging rates that contribute to recruitment of nesting birds and an increase in number of nests.

On islands in the lower Florida Keys, endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) aggregate in urban areas where deer densities are high, potentially increasing browsing impacts in these areas. To quantify impacts, we compared plant densities and diversity in hardwood hammocks located adjacent to (urban) and distant from (exurban) developed areas on islands with high (> 17 deer/km(2)) and low (< 1 deer/km(2)) Key deer densities. Although we detected no differences in total plant densities or diversity on islands with high densities of deer, we observed lower mean (+/- SE) densities of deer-preferred plant species within reach of deer in hammock stands in urban areas (84.9 +/- 35.9/ha) than exurban areas (694.5 +/- 428.4/ha). No such patterns were evident on islands with low deer densities. We also experimentally tested deer browsing intensity on islands of high deer density using potted plants. We found that mean (+/- SE) browsing pressures (measured as proportion of leaves remaining on potted plants) were higher on preferred plant species in hammocks near urban areas (0.451 +/- 0.226) than exurban areas (0.591 +/- 0.230). Stimuli (e.g., human handouts) that attract deer to urban locales should be controlled and further development restricted to deter heavy browsing pressures by Key deer near urban areas and to prevent degradation of state-imperiled hardwood hammock plant communities.

Anthropogenic habitat fragmentation poses a serious threat to conservation of large carnivores, due to their extensive movements and potential conflicts with humans. We studied the population ecology of Florida black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus) for 6years in two study areas in north-central Florida: Ocala National Forest (ONF), a contiguous forested habitat, and an adjacent residential community of Lynne, a fragmented habitat with substantial human activities. We estimated age-specific survival and fecundity rates of bears using data from radio-collared bears, and parameterized and analyzed stage-structured matrix population models for the two study sites and also for data pooled from both sites. Annual survival rates of adult females were lower in Lynne (0.776±0.074) than in ONF (0.966±0.023). While cub survival rates were higher in Lynne (0.507±0.135) than in ONF (0.282±0.109), the rates at both sites were substantially lower than those reported for other black bear populations. Age-specific fecundities did not vary between sites. The asymptotic population growth rate for ONF was greater than one, whereas that for Lynne was less than one. Our results suggest that anthropogenic influences (primarily road density and vehicular traffic, through their effect on adult survival) can substantially affect the population dynamics of Florida black bears and other large carnivores with large home ranges. We recommend efforts such as constructing highway underpasses, which could reduce road-related mortalities, to ensure long-term persistence of Florida black bears facing threats from rapidly increasing human influences.

Deer can have severe effects on plant communities, which in turn can affect insect communities. We studied the effects of Key deer herbivory on the incidence of insect herbivores that occur within deer habitats in the lower Florida Keys, within the National Key Deer Refuge (NKDR). We analyzed plant chemistry (tannins, nitrogen) and surveyed for the occurrence of insects (above the browse tier) among plant species that were either deer-preferred or less-preferred. Results indicated higher levels of foliar tannins on islands with fewer Key deer and larger amounts of foliar nitrogen on islands with a high density of Key deer. Consequently, leaf miners were significantly more abundant on islands with high deer density, irrespective of deer-preference of plant species. On islands with a high deer density, incidence of leaves damaged by chewing insects was lower on preferred plant species but greater on less-preferred species than on islands with fewer deer. No apparent patterns were evident in the distribution of leaf gallers among plant species or islands with different deer density. Our results imply that plant nutrition levels-either preexisting or indirectly affected by deer deposition-are more important than plant defenses in determining the distribution of insect herbivores in the NKDR. Although high densities of the endangered Key deer have negative effects on some plant species in the NKDR, it seems Key deer might have an indirect positive influence on insect incidence primarily above the browse tier. Further research is warranted to enable fuller understanding of the interactions between Key deer and the insect community.

In the lower Florida Keys, endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) herbivory, along with fire, can affect pine rocklands, an endangered plant community. We compared pineland vegetation from three studies over approximately 50 years on four islands with either high or low deer density (historical analysis). We also compared extant vegetation samples between two islands with high or low deer density, which contained pinelands burned 10 years and 14 years prior to sampling and control areas (unburned for > 50yr). In addition, experimental deer exclosures and control plots established in pineland were prescribe burned and analyzed for deer effects on an island with high density of Key deer. The historical analysis suggests that, over time, deer-preferred plant species declined while less-preferred species increased, regardless of fire history on islands. The extant vegetation analysis suggests that fire and Key deer herbivory both reduce hardwood plant density and growth. Densities of deer-preferred woody species were higher on an island with low deer density than on an island with high deer density in burn treatments, but relatively similar in control areas. On the high deer density island, a fire effect was evident in that the control area had higher densities of woody species than burned areas, and herbaceous species richness was higher in the control area, indicating a possible refuge from deer herbivory. In deer exclosures, preferred woody species and herbaceous species tended to increase after fire, but decrease in adjacent open plots. Results suggest that Key deer herbivory, along with fire, shapes pine rockland plant communities, and that overbrowsing might have substantial impacts on preferred herbaceous and woody species in pinelands. Therefore, efforts could be confounded in managing both the endangered Key deer and the endangered pine rocklands that they affect.

The aim of the present study was to estimate changes in plant species composition in several forest communities caused by changes in endangered Key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) densities in the National Key Deer Refuge in the lower Florida Keys. Baseline vegetation quadrats from a 1990 study were resampled in 2002 (the present study) in buttonwood transition, hardwood hammock, and mangrove wetland communities (all deer habitat) on 12 islands with low, medium, and high Key deer densities. On islands with high Key deer densities (> 17 deer km(-2)), the relative densities of preferred plant species < 1.2 m tall significantly decreased over time in each deer habitat, and nonpreferred species < 1.2 m tall significantly increased in hammock and mangrove habitats. No significant changes were observed in densities of plant species < 1.2 m tall on islands with low and medium Key deer densities (< 8 deer km(-2)). Relative densities of preferred plant species > 1.2 m tall (midstory/canopy) also significantly decreased in hammock on islands with high deer density, suggesting that heavy browsing is deterring plant growth/recruitment, thus already affecting regeneration of certain plant species into the midstory/canopy tiers. Plant species richness did not vary significantly between 1990 and 2002 for islands with high deer densities, but tended to increase slightly on islands with low deer density in buttonwood and hammock communities. Evidence from this study suggests that high densities of Key deer influence plant species composition on certain islands. We suggest that management plans for Key deer should incorporate both species protection components and population control techniques dependent on deer density-island associations.