Chapter 9 is the first of two chapters that consider the cultural aspects of the topic of immigration to later medieval England. It eschews the language of 'assimilation' and instead considers degrees of acculturation, stressing not only that the lives of immigrants were altered by the process of movement but that English culture (and 'Englishness' itself) were influenced and changed by the immigrant presence. After reviewing contemporary understandings of national characteristics, and the various (and often derogatory) stereotypes that the English used for their European neighbours, it considers those who effectively changed nationality (whether through denization or through other means) in the given period and whether their change of status can be seen to have been an affective, or merely a pragmatic, process. The chapter then proceeds to consider the internationalism of the royal court and its patronage of alien writers, musicians and artists. Next, it considers the role of language and the methods by which immigrants acquired various degrees of understanding of the English vernacular. Finally, the chapter reviews the evidence of immigrants' personal names as represented in English government records and considers what these can tell us about the perpetuation or loss of 'foreign' identities.

Chapter 5 is the second of the two chapters that focus on the 'national' identities of immigrants to later medieval England as evidenced by contemporary governmental records. It identifies five groups: the French (who were often identified and subdivided by region as the Bretons, the Normans, the Gascons, etc.); the 'Dutch' (a catch-all term to describe people from the Low Countries and the area covered by modern Germany); Scandinavians and Icelanders; the Italians; the Iberians; and the 'Greeks' (a term used to describe a variety of people from the eastern Mediterranean). The French and the 'Dutch' appeared in comparatively large numbers in England, while those from the Mediterranean, though much fewer in number, were often socially and economically prominent. The chapter considers the impact of the Hundred Years War on patterns of migration between France and England. It also discusses the consequences of Ottoman advance in the eastern Mediterranean as a contributing factor to the migration of 'Greeks' into England in the later fifteenth century.

Chapter 6 is the first of two chapters dedicated to an analysis of the economic activities of immigrants to England in the later Middle Ages. It begins by outlining the economic changes in England as a result of the Black Death of 1348 and the major redistribution of wealth that occurred over the following century. In this process, more English consumers had more money available for purchasing non-essential goods. The result was a considerable demand for high-quality products which were either not available in England or were not produced there to the necessary standard or quantity. All of this prompted the migration to England of skilled people working a range of identifiable crafts: in the clothing industry, in the building trades and in victualling (especially the production of beer). Special consideration is given to the cloth industry, since this has often been regarded as providing the defining model for the introduction of alien skilled labour into England in the relevant period. The chapter also considers the role and function of alien merchants in England.