Executive function (EF) is a core aspect of development, however, the current body of EF research is disproportionately influenced by studies conducted in Western, high-income countries, with limited representation from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) such as India. This imbalance raises concerns about the generalizability and cultural relevance of EF constructs and assessment tools. To address this gap, this scoping review examined the tools used to assess EFs in preschool-aged children (birth to six years) in India. The review also explored which EF domains were most frequently assessed and identified disciplinary patterns in EF research within India. The search process yielded 3,540 articles, 210 were selected for full-text review, 28 met the inclusion criteria and were retained for data extraction. Findings revealed that emerging culturally responsive instruments developed by local researchers show promise. However, there is a persisting reliance on Western-developed instruments. Only six studies utilized locally developed tools, few measures included standardized translations into Indian languages, and only two studies in this review focused on instrument validation or design. Furthermore, EF was often examined as an auxiliary construct as few studies were designed with EF as a core developmental construct deserving of targeted investigation. Addressing these gaps require a shift toward EF specific research that prioritize culturally grounded measures, linguistic inclusivity, and ecological validity.

Parental differential treatment (PDT) is an important aspect of children's unique experiences within the family environment, with well-established links to lower-quality sibling relationships. Existing literature often assumes that PDT fosters anger and rivalry. However, the reverse association may also be true, with poor sibling relationships disrupting parental attitudes and behaviors that exacerbate differential parenting. The directionality of the observed relationship is important to address for understanding the internal workings of family dynamics and the particular role of sibling relationships. Thus, the current study explored directional associations between PDT and sibling relationship quality using a longitudinal, repeated-measures design. Data were from an international sample of caregivers (n = 497; 43.46% female) with two children each (n = 994) between the ages of 5-17. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models examined the longitudinal associations between PDT and sibling relationship quality, while partitioning between- and within-families variance. Irrespective of time, findings suggested that higher overall PDT and differential negativity specifically were related to poorer-quality sibling relationships between families. Furthermore, within families, more differential negativity predicted better sibling relationship quality at a later time point, and poorer sibling relationship quality led to subsequent decreases in differential negativity. Interpreted through the lens of homeostatic effects and feedback loops within family systems, the findings illustrate the dynamic ways in which families achieve stability, in addition to underscoring sibling relationship quality as a potential protective factor against differential parenting.

In the fields of child psychology and psychiatry, countless environmental factors have been identified as correlates of children's health and development, yet each of these generally accounts for a small proportion of variance. The unaccounted-for variation in a model may be due to measurement error, random variation, model misspecifications or unmeasured predictors. The search for predictors traditionally viewed as being quite distal in children's social ecology has rapidly expanded over the past decade. For example, concerns regarding the impact of climate change on planetary health have been accompanied by research directly assessing the impact of climate-related environmental stressors on the health and well-being of children and youth. In this space, factors such as ambient heat exposure and air pollution during sensitive windows of development have recently been incorporated into studies examining children's mental health and neurodevelopment. In this perspective paper, we discuss the results of two such papers published in the journal, one each focused on heat exposure (Cuartas et al., 2026) and air pollution (Oh & Song, 2026) in relation to children's neurodevelopmental outcomes. Drawing on large international samples and using diverse methodologies, these studies show several small but consistent associations with a range of child outcomes, thus providing compelling initial evidence of the effects of these climate-related environmental stressors on development. Still, many unanswered questions remain related to the generalizability and reliability of findings, the domains of development most impacted, and the specific factors that may either exacerbate or mitigate the effect of these stressors. With considerable practice and policy implications, we argue for continued work in this area using diverse samples, robust measurement tools, and integration of developmental theories that will move beyond simple associations to help capture the complex mechanisms underlying these associations.

Background The human immune system is highly susceptible to seasonal changes, however it is unknown whether this holds true during pregnancy. This study assessed whether C-Reactive Protein (CRP) levels are moderated by season of sample collection and/or a person's tendency to have low mood during the fall-winter months (Seasonal Affective Disorder or SAD) in a Canadian pregnancy and birth cohort. As overweight/obesity has been associated with both elevated CRP and fall-winter SAD, the moderating effect of overweight/obesity on these seasonal effects was also examined. Methods Maternal plasma CRP was measured at weeks 11-19 and 24-30 of pregnancy. Separate Generalized Linear Models were used to predict these two CRP levels using a 2 season of collection (fall-winter vs. spring-summer) by 2 seasonal group (yes/no for lifetime SAD) by 2 pre-pregnancy BMI group (healthy weight vs. overweight/obese) design. Results A significant 3-way interaction predicted CRP levels at pregnancy weeks 24-30 (F = 8.49, df = 1, 353, p = .004), with the highest levels in mothers with the combination of fall/winter plasma sampling, meeting screening criteria for lifetime SAD, and being overweight/obese. The respective 2-way season of sampling by BMI group interaction was also highly significant (F = 8.18, df = 1, 353; p = .004). Unexpectedly, these various results were independent of state depression and maternal anti-depressant use. No seasonal differences were found for early pregnancy CRP levels. Conclusions Overweight/obese mothers had greater fall/winter increases in later pregnancy CRP levels than did healthy weight mothers, further boosted by a maternal history of fall-winter SAD. Both environmental and individual-level seasonality may be critical considerations for future research on gestational inflammation.

The COVID-19 pandemic posed significant risks to children, yet there is little longitudinal research on children's coping during this period. The current study used data from the Child Resilience and Managing Pandemic Emotional Distress (CRAMPED) Families project, a longitudinal study of 1,096 children nested within 548 families across seven timepoints from May 2020 to October 2022. We examined trajectories of child coping over 2.5 years of the pandemic and associations with COVID-19 stress, positive family adaptation, and caregiver social support. Multilevel modeling revealed a curvilinear trend of child coping, with an increase in coping in early months followed by declines over time, suggestive of allostatic load. Higher COVID-19 stress was negatively associated with coping, whereas higher family adaptation and caregiver social support were positively associated with coping. Social support buffered the association between COVID-19 stress and child coping. Despite the transition toward a "post-pandemic" society, continued focus on children's long-term adjustment is warranted. Family-level supports appear crucial for promoting coping, and while caregiver's social support is protective against stress, mobilization of additional resources (e.g., government, community) beyond the caregiver's network may be necessary to promote healthy coping.

OBJECTIVE:This study examined associations between single-versus dual-parental depressive and anxiety symptoms during the antenatal and postpartum period with child socioemotional problems from 12 to 24 months of age. METHOD:In this nationwide Canadian longitudinal cohort study of women and their cohabitating partners, generalized estimating equations were used to examine associations between antenatal maternal and paternal depressive (Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale) and anxiety (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) symptoms measured retrospectively within 3 weeks postpartum, and postnatal symptoms measured prospectively at 3, 6, 9, 12, and 18 months postpartum and their children's socioemotional development (Brief Infant-toddler Social and Emotional Assessment) from 12 to 24 months of age. RESULTS:The study included 3217 cohabitating couples. Adjusting for covariates, mother-only (range of ORs = 1.50 [95% CI, 1.08-2.10] for antenatal anxiety symptoms to 2.03 [95% CI, 1.13-3.65] for antenatal comorbid symptoms), father-only (range of ORs = 1.57 [95% CI, 1.18-2.09] for postpartum anxiety symptoms to 2.44 [95% CI, 1.33-4.47] for antenatal comorbid symptoms), and dual-parental (range of ORs = 1.78 [95% CI, 1.00-3.15] for antenatal anxiety symptoms to 4.34 [95% CI, 1.83-10.29] for antenatal depressive symptoms) depressive and anxiety symptoms in both the antenatal and postpartum periods were associated with increased child socioemotional problems. CONCLUSION:Maternal and paternal depressive and anxiety symptoms during the antenatal and postpartum periods are associated with increased child socioemotional problems in early childhood, with roughly equal magnitude. Dual-parental mental health conditions and comorbid conditions have the strongest associations with socioemotional problems. Findings underscore the importance of considering the well-being of mothers and fathers in promoting healthy socioemotional development.

Early parenthood is shaped by evolving parental behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, and well-being embedded within biopsychosocial contexts. In this nationwide longitudinal study, we used latent growth curve modeling to examine how biopsychosocial vulnerability is associated with trajectories of parental experiences among new mothers and fathers during the first 2 years postpartum. Coresiding mothers (N = 2,994) and fathers (N = 2,787) across Canada self-reported various biopsychosocial vulnerabilities (e.g., lower couple relationship quality, lower perceived social support) at a single time point, with most factors collected at 3 weeks postpartum and others at 3 months postpartum. Parents further reported on parental outcomes (e.g., involvement, distress, overreactivity) starting at 3 months postpartum for up to five time points across the first 2 years postpartum. Results showed that vulnerability factors had the strongest and most frequent associations with initial status in parental outcomes, with lower relationship quality and lower perceived social support having the largest effect sizes. These patterns were similar for both mothers and fathers. In contrast, the number and strength of associations with change in parental outcomes over time was smaller. While lower relationship quality and perceived social support were linked to improvements in some parental outcomes over time, high childhood adversity, immigrant background, lower household income, and lower education were associated with less favorable changes in outcomes. These patterns varied between mothers and fathers. Overall, the findings underscore the contribution of biopsychosocial vulnerability in the functioning and well-being of first-time parents, with shared and unique risks for mothers and fathers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Research has identified numerous personal, school, and family factors associated with youth mental health, yet it remains unclear which correlates best predict mental health outcomes accurately. This study used machine learning to identify the strongest personal, school, and family correlates of mental well-being, overall mental health problems, and internalizing (anxiety and depression) and externalizing (attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder) symptoms among school-age children and youth and examines whether associations vary across demographic subgroups. Data were drawn from the 2014-2015 School Mental Health Survey in Canada. Machine learning-based feature importance analyses on 24,692 youth (12,754 [51.7%] girls) identified school belonging as the strongest correlate of general mental well-being, lifestyle behaviors (e.g., sleep and exercise) as the strongest correlate of internalizing symptoms, and class preparedness as the strongest correlate of externalizing symptoms. By leveraging generalized random forest models, we found that the strongest correlates of general well-being and internalizing symptoms, but not externalizing symptoms, exhibited statistically significant group differences by gender, family immigration background, and parent education. For example, although school belonging was the strongest correlate of general mental well-being for both genders, higher belonging was associated with greater well-being among girls compared with boys. In addition, higher academic achievement and family relationship quality were associated with fewer internalizing symptoms among youth from immigrant families than those from nonimmigrant families. These findings highlight unique sets of personal, school, and family factors related to mental health among diverse youth, which may inform tailored interventions targeting these multilevel factors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

Dimensional models of adversity posit partially distinct mechanisms linking dimensions of early-life adversity (ELA) to mental health. Although evidence supports some of these mechanistic differences, there has yet to be a review that centers on development of attention biases to emotional stimuli. This systematic review examined associations between the dimensions of early-life threat and deprivation with attention biases in childhood and adolescence across nine different task types. Articles were identified using six online databases organized using Covidence with our search spanning from inception to June 17, 2025. Forward and backward snowball searches were conducted to identify additional articles. Articles were selected for inclusion if: (1) participants were aged 0–18 years; (2) participants had experienced at least one form of ELA with a non-exposed comparison group (or ELA measured continuously); (3) at least one measure of attention bias indexed; (4) they were written in the English language; and (5) they were published in a peer-reviewed journal. PRISMA guidelines were used to inform data extraction, which was conducted by multiple independent reviewers. A total of 46 articles were identified for extraction. Evidence was heterogeneous and revealed that, across different dimensions of ELA, significant associations tended to be conditional on specific study characteristics such as participant age, stimulus presentations time, and emotion type. Overall, partial support for the dimensional model was found, though reliable patterns were hampered by inconsistencies in study design and sampling. Recommendations for future investigation are provided.

Internalizing symptoms such as depression and anxiety rise dramatically during emerging adulthood. Although both childhood and adulthood adversity are associated with internalizing symptoms during this period, the underlying transdiagnostic processes connecting adversity to internalizing symptoms are unclear. To investigate this, we examined how childhood and adulthood adversity are related to internalizing symptoms during emerging adulthood via individual differences in executive functioning. In a cross-sectional study of 203 participants aged 18-24 years (Mage=20.36, SDage=1.73, 66.01% women/transwomen, 28.08% White-European/North American), lifetime stressor exposure was indexed using the Stress and Adversity Inventory, internalizing symptoms were measured using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale, and executive functioning was measured as a latent factor indicated by multiple performance-based measures. Analyses were conducted using regression and path analyses. In separate models, both childhood and adulthood adversity exposure predicted greater internalizing symptoms, but when entered as competing predictors in the same model, only adulthood adversity continued to predict psychopathology. No evidence for an indirect association involving executive functioning was detected, although higher childhood adversity was associated with better executive functioning. These results highlight differential associations between adversity timing, internalizing symptoms, and executive functioning during emerging adulthood, with minimal evidence of executive functioning as an indirect path linking adversity to internalizing symptoms.

There is some evidence that children exposed to the COVID-19 pandemic experienced more neurodevelopmental difficulties than children before the pandemic, as well as evidence that women with young children experienced more mental health challenges during this period compared to pre-pandemic. However, it is unclear whether increased maternal mental health challenges acted as a mechanism linking pandemic exposure to children’s neurodevelopment difficulties. As part of the Ontario Birth Study, women (N = 862) reported their internalizing (i.e., depression and anxiety) symptoms using the Patient Health Questionnaire-4 (PHQ-4) at three timepoints (prenatally and 8 and 24 months postnatally). Child neurodevelopment was assessed at 24 months using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire-3 (ASQ-3). Analyses included a combination of regression and path analyses with adjustment for covariates. Women exposed to the pandemic prenatally and at 8 and 24 months postnatally reported more concurrent internalizing difficulties than those not exposed; however, women exposed both pre- and postnatally did not differ from those only exposed postnatally. Higher prenatal maternal internalizing symptoms were associated with lower child gross motor skills at 24 months. Higher maternal internalizing symptoms at 8 and 24 months were marginally (p < 0.1) associated with lower child personal-social and gross motor skills, respectively, at 24 months. The association between prenatal pandemic exposure and lower gross motor skills was marginally mediated by the presence of prenatal maternal internalizing symptoms. Mothers and young children may have been particularly vulnerable to pandemic stress. Maternal internalizing symptoms, especially during pregnancy, may serve as a pathway linking pandemic exposure with child neurodevelopment and may represent a malleable target for intervention.

ObjectivesBuilding on prior population-level studies, this replication study explored the predictive accuracy of retrospectively-reported early-life adversity (ELA) for individual psychopathology risk in a Canadian population survey, with measurements focused on direct/severe ELA and occurring during the COVID-19 pandemic.MethodsNationally-representative, cross-sectional data from 7,608 Canadians surveyed in 2022 were analysed. Group-level differences were assessed via logistic regression, and predictive accuracy of ELA was tested via area under the curve (AUC) analyses.ResultsGroup-based analyses found that the odds of mental health problems rose with increasing ELA, albeit nonlinearly. Across psychopathology domains, predictive accuracy was poor (AUC = 0.62-0.67). Using a high-risk cut-off of ≥4 ELAs, sensitivity values were low (0.14-0.23), while specificity was high (0.93-0.94). Similarly, positive predictive values were low (0.08-0.22), while negative predictive values were high (0.92-0.97).ConclusionsELA screening performs poorly at the individual level. While high-risk cut-offs may rule out poor mental health for individuals with fewer ELAs, it fails to accurately identify those with psychopathology. Predictive accuracy does not improve under conditions of collective stress or by focusing on direct/severe ELA. Presently, ELA screening is unsuitable for guiding intervention allocation. Further research is needed to determine whether screening can be refined to improve mental health risk prediction.Plain Language Summary TitleEarly-life adversity and adult mental health: Is Canadian screening getting it right?

As digital media becomes an increasingly integral component of daily life, concerns about the links between screen use and children’s psychological well-being have intensified. Current evidence on the association between screen time and mental health is mixed, underscoring the relevance of exploring contextual factors that may account for individual differences. One potential factor is environmental sensitivity, the extent to which an individual is susceptible to the negative effects of risky environments and the benefits of supportive ones. High environmental sensitivity may render some children more prone to experiencing mental health challenges in relation to screen exposure. Informed by the Differential Susceptibility to Media Effects Model, this cross-sectional study explored whether environmental sensitivity moderates the associations between children’s screen time and mental health outcomes. Caregivers (N = 342) of children aged 5 to 17 years reported their children’s mental health symptoms, screen time, and environmental sensitivity through an online survey. The results showed that environmental sensitivity moderated the links between screen time and depressive symptoms, with significant associations among children with average and high environmental sensitivity. A moderating effect was also found for screen time and impairment, which were significantly associated among highly sensitive children. These findings point to environmental sensitivity as a factor that may explain varying levels of vulnerability to the effects of screen time on mental health. In turn, screen use guidelines may consider how best to account for children’s individual differences, including their environmental sensitivity, and offer personalized recommendations that mitigate risks associated with excessive screen exposure among more sensitive children.

The authors explore publication trends in the Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry over the past 5 years regarding associations between parenting and child outcomes, with a focus on the directionality of these effects. Bibliometric analysis revealed that far more studies have examined parent-to-child associations than either child-to-parent or bidirectional associations, reflecting a significant imbalance in what researchers publishing in JCPP intend to study. However, when evaluating evidence from a subset of robust and well-designed studies, especially those that permit a test of bidirectionality, the authors see a more balanced picture, with a roughly equal number of studies finding evidence of parent-to-child, child-to-parent, and bidirectional effects. These studies used a range of methodologies and examined a diverse set of parenting behaviors and child outcomes. Overall, the findings suggest that evidence in favor of child effects is consistently observed despite being significantly understudied relative to that of parent effects. The authors emphasize the importance of studying both child and parent effects alongside one another to understand the complexity of parent–child interactions, and underscore how respect for the agency and perspectives of youth is essential to understanding how they shape the conditions in which they grow up.

Many studies have documented increases in child mental health problems during the COVID-19 pandemic, compared to prepandemic estimates. However, less is known about the long-term trajectories of mental health during the pandemic, and how shared (e.g., family-average parenting) and nonshared (e.g., differential parenting) environments are associated with these trajectories. The aim of the present study was to explore longitudinal patterns of parent-reported child anger, anxiety, depressive symptoms, and sleep problems during the pandemic, and to examine associations with the parenting environment. Data came from a longitudinal study that followed caregivers (n = 549) and two of their children (n = 1,098; aged 5-19 years) across seven waves between May 2020 and September 2022. Three-level multilevel models investigated the trajectories of child mental health symptoms, and the variance in outcomes attributed to between-family, within-family, and within-individual differences. Significant proportions of variance in child mental health were attributed to family differences, individual differences, and change over time. On average, child mental health improved over time, although these trajectories were nonlinear. Higher family-level positive parenting practices and lower family-level negative parenting practices were associated with lower child mental health problems for both siblings. Children who were disfavored (received more negativity/less positivity compared to their sibling) had higher levels of mental health problems. Both family-wide and individual-level factors play a role in child mental health during periods of stress, emphasizing the importance of considering parenting and mental health across layers of family organization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).

BACKGROUND:Child mental health challenges have long-term implications for social and emotional functioning. The quality of the interparental relationship is an important contributor to children's mental health challenges. Evidence supports the use of brief couple interventions to enhance couple functioning, though secondary benefits to child outcomes are unknown. The current study examines whether changes to the interparental relationship following participation in a brief couple intervention, in turn, lead to changes in child mental health challenges. METHODS:Participants come from a secondary dataset from a randomized controlled trial of Love Together, Parent Together, a brief couple intervention, and included 267 parents (140 couples) with at least one child under 6 years old. Parents reported on 10 indicators of the interparental relationship and their child's mental health challenges at baseline, 1 week post-intervention and 1- and 3-month follow-ups. RESULTS:Based on an exploratory factor analysis including all 10 indicators of the interparental relationship, a two-factor model emerged, which included interparental conflict and general relationship quality. Structural equation modelling was used to test indirect effects with interparental conflict and relationship quality, respectively, as mediators, and child mental health challenges at 1- and 3-month follow-ups, respectively, as outcomes. The intervention did not significantly predict couples' T2 conflict, nor did T2 conflict predict follow-up child mental health challenges. The intervention significantly improved the couples' T2 relationship quality, though there were no reliable effects found on child mental health challenges. CONCLUSIONS:In sum, though findings are consistent with the idea that conflict and relationship quality are unique factors of the interparental relationship, there is no evidence for benefits of a brief couple intervention to child mental health challenges. Future studies should carefully consider measurement selection and assessment schedules to detect developmental cascades following couple interventions.

In two-parent households, the interparental relationship and coparenting alliance are central to the well-being of family relationships and young children. The current study examines whether participation in a brief, online, couple-focused relationship intervention has collateral benefits to coparenting indirectly through improvements in couple relationship quality and conflict frequency, respectively. A community sample of couples with young children in Canada (N = 140 couples; 280 participants; 91.4% heterosexual; 61.1% White; 49.3% women) participated in a randomized controlled trial (RCT). The intervention group was taught conflict reappraisal strategies, whereas the control group received an inactive control task. Both members of the couple reported on perceived relationship quality and conflict frequency (at baseline and post-intervention), and coparenting (at baseline, 1-month, and 3-month follow-up). Controlling for baseline levels, a longitudinal, parallel mediation analysis including relationship quality and conflict frequency as mediators indicated that the indirect effect of random assignment to the intervention to coparenting via relationship quality was significant, but not through conflict frequency. There are positive cascading effects of a couple-focused intervention onto the relationship between parents, which in turn enhances their ability to work together to raise their child. Findings help to bridge intervention research across relationship, family, and developmental science.

BACKGROUND:Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may be a risk factor for intra- and inter-parental affective disorders in the perinatal period, placing families at risk for negative outcomes. METHODS:A large prospective cohort of Canadian women and their male partners (N = 2544 couples) were recruited in the postpartum period. Repeated measures data were collected at baseline and six timepoints over 24-months postpartum. Self-reported ADHD symptoms were measured at baseline, and depression/anxiety were measured at all timepoints. Generalized estimating equations examined associations between possible ADHD and ADHD symptoms with new depression, anxiety, and comorbidity. Cross-parental associations were explored. RESULTS:Compared to mothers without, those with possible ADHD had higher odds of depression (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.70, 95 % CI [1.13-2.56]), anxiety (aOR = 1.74 [1.30-2.34]), and comorbidity (aOR = 1.66, [1.06-2.60]), at 3-24 months postpartum. Maternal ADHD symptoms were associated with anxiety in fathers (aOR = 1.03 [1.01-1.06] for 1-unit increase in symptoms) at 3-24-months. When compared to fathers without, those with possible ADHD had higher odds of depression (aOR = 2.33 [1.78-3.05]), anxiety (aOR = 2.02, [1.60-2.55]), and comorbidity (aOR = 2.05, [1.51-2.79]), as well as paternal ADHD symptoms associated with depression (aOR = 1.05, [1.01-1.08] for 1-unit increase in symptoms) and comorbidity (aOR = 1.04 [1.00-1.08] for 1-unit increase in symptoms) in mothers at 3-24-months. LIMITATIONS:Self-reported measures. CONCLUSIONS:Parental ADHD in the postpartum period is associated with depression and anxiety among mothers and fathers. Paternal ADHD was a risk for maternal mental health problems in the early postpartum period, and maternal ADHD was a risk for paternal mental health problems in the late postpartum period.