Specific questions in wildlife research and surveillance require safe and efficient capture, handling and anaesthesia protocols to enable sampling and transmitter placement in free-ranging individuals. For wild felids, various protocols are available, but detailed reports for European wildcats ( Felis silvestris ) are scarce. In particular, tools for anaesthesia monitoring under field conditions and reference values for heart rate, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation and body temperature are missing. In the present study, European wildcats were caught in box traps before being released into catch bags for manual restraint. Inside the bags, ketamine-xylazine anaesthesia was applied via intramuscular injection, adjusted to the animal’s body weight. During anaesthesia, samples were taken, and vital variables were monitored continuously. Haematology and blood chemistry parameters were obtained, along with serological markers for antibodies against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline coronavirus and antigens of feline leukaemia virus (FeLV). In total, 29 wildcats were captured, of which 21 were examined and marked with passive integrated transponders. Twelve wildcats were collared with GPS transmitters. Handling time under anaesthesia averaged 30 min (range 26–35 min). Heart rate ranged between 76 and 170 beats/min and respiratory rate between 20 and 52 breaths/min. Relative arterial oxygen saturation stayed mainly between 93 and 99%, and rectal temperature ranged between 36.2 and 40.2 °C. Further, FeLV antibodies were detected in 2/21 samples. The applied protocol facilitated safe and sufficient examination, sampling and transmitter placement, as well as the establishment of haematological and blood chemical values in free-ranging European wildcats for the first time.

Voigt et al. (2021) provide a thorough analysis of the restrictions inherent to the estimation of bat abundance from acoustic surveys, and conclude that limitations of acoustic monitoring impede the reliable evaluation of bat fatalities at wind turbines. We argue that acoustic data recorded at the nacelle of wind turbines have been experimentally validated as a useful and appropriate measure of bat collisions. Therefore, acoustic data can be used to estimate bat fatalities at wind turbines, provided a referenced and standardised protocol for data acquisition and analysis is used.

As part of the mitigation measures adopted in the context of preparatory clearcutting for surface mining, Hazel Dormice have been translocated since 2011. The project is situated in the geographical region of Lower Rhine Basin (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany). To date, Hazel Dormice have been translocated from an old-growth deciduous forest to four other sites. Three release sites are re-cultivation areas which were planted with trees and shrubs roughly 10 to 30 years ago. The other release site is an old-growth deciduous forest with a well-developed understory. Nest boxes were placed in the source forest and checked between April and October. Any dormice that were found were individually marked and released, inside their nest boxes, at the new sites. Two or three additional nest boxes were placed within the surroundings of each translocated box. Between 2011 and 2018 we translocated 1,840 individuals. We verify the success of translocation by monitoring the release sites in June and September of the first, second, fifth and eighth year after translocation. Additionally, a sample of 200 nest boxes were checked each month between April and October for five years. Finally, we examined groups of nest boxes shortly after translocation to gather information on the translocated animals immediately after release. Individual records reveals that translocation can be a successful conservation measure to secure local populations if their former habitat is damaged.

Hazel Dormice (Muscardinus avellanarius) are protected by national implementation of European law. Protection comprises of the prohibition of physical harm to individuals and the destruction of breeding or nesting sites. Due to Germany’s policy goal of changing from a fossil fuel dominated energy supply to more sustainable energy sources, large infrastructural projects became crucial to, for example, redistribute energy from Northern and Eastern Germany to Bavaria. Within the context of the inevitable building projects, the protection goals for species like the Hazel Dormouse need to be maintained. The layout of such a project with a linear design stretching across hundreds of kilometers and intersecting different landscapes and habitats poses new challenges. Aspects of the construction phase of underground cables need to be considered in planning as well as the design of the protective strip above the finished cable. In order to plan mitigation and compensation measures, species presence and absence data need to be collected effectively. A total of 223 sample sites along a 207 km long corridor were equipped with 5,499 nest-tubes and monitored regularly. For habitat potential, biotope types were assessed and mapped within the corridor. All types of potential Hazel Dormouse habitat were selected considering regional differences. Based on previous research, we established guidelines for the transferability of presence and absence data. We present the procedure for data collection spanning a vast area using nest-tubes, proposed guidelines for the transferability of results, as well as mitigation and compensation measures necessary to ensure protection of the Hazel Dormouse.

The Hazel Dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) is protected under the EU’s Habitat Directive and its national implementation, whereby physical harm to individuals as well as the destruction of breeding and nesting sites is prohibited. Within the context of inevitable environmental impacts these protection goals are not always maintained. Therefore, mitigation and compensation measures to secure a population’s viability are required. For sedentary and less mobile species like the Hazel Dormouse, mitigation often includes the translocation of individuals to a different habitat patch. In 2017 and 2018 a total of 108 individuals were translocated from an old growth oak-hornbeam forest to an area that was re-forested 40 years ago. Prior to translocation, individuals were equipped with a radio transmitter and they were followed for three consecutive nights and one control night, during which bearings were taken every five minutes using the triangulation technique. A control group of established Hazel Dormice was followed in the same manner. Nests and resting sites were searched for during the daytime. Twelve male Hazel Dormice were radio-collared and between 234 and 427 bearings were taken per individual. Resting sites of translocated dormice were mainly located within the forest canopy (33.3%). Furthermore, individuals were often found active during the daytime. Mean activity range size (MCP) and resource search areas (LoCoH 95 %) were larger in translocated dormice, whereas the mean core habitat size (LoCoH 50 %) was larger in established dormice. The activity range during all of the monitored nights overlapped significantly more in established dormice, demonstrating exploratory behaviour by translocated individuals.

Abstract The study of animal–habitat interactions is of primary importance for the formulation of conservation recommendations. Flying, gliding, and climbing animals have the ability to exploit their habitat in a three‐dimensional way, and the vertical canopy structure in forests plays an essential role for habitat suitability. Forest bats as flying mammals may seasonally shift their microhabitat use due to differing energy demands or changing prey availability, but the patterns are not well understood. We investigated three‐dimensional and seasonal habitat use by insectivorous bats in a temperate lowland old‐growth forest, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus. We acoustically sampled broadleaved and mixed coniferous plots in the forest interior and in gaps in three heights during two reproductive periods (pregnancy/lactation vs. postlactation). In canopy gaps, vertical stratification in bat activity was less pronounced than in the forest interior. Vertical activity patterns differed among species. The upper canopy levels were important foraging habitats for the open‐space forager guild and for some edge‐space foragers like the Barbastelle bat Barbastella barbastellus and the soprano pipistrelle Pipistrellus pygmaeus. Myotis species had highest activity levels near the ground in forest gaps. Moreover, we found species‐dependent seasonal microhabitat shifts. Generally, all species and species groups considered except Myotis species showed higher activity levels during postlactation. Myotis species tended toward higher activity in the forest interior during postlactation. P. pygmaeus switched from high activity levels in the upper canopy during pregnancy and lactation to high activity levels near the ground during postlactation. We conclude that a full comprehension of forest bat habitat use is only possible when height in canopy and seasonal patterns are considered.

Globally, forests are under pressure to cope with an increasing human demand for forest products, while the need to protect forest biota increases. Old-growth forests are reference systems for the study of natural structures and processes in forest ecosystems. Results from such studies can be used to derive management practices that support and even foster biodiversity. Most temperate bat species exhibit a high affinity towards forest habitats. We studied the foraging behaviour of temperate woodland bats in naturally created canopy gaps. The study took place in a large and coherent Central European lowland old-growth forest, the “Belovezhskaya Pushcha” in Belarus. We used passive acoustic recorders to assess the activity and diversity of bats in 12 natural canopy gaps and in adjacent forest interior control plots in two different forest habitats. We found that the activity of open-space foragers and narrow-space foragers did not differ between forest gaps and the adjacent forest interior. The activity of edge-space foraging bats was higher in forest gaps. Bat diversity in mixed-coniferous forest stands was higher in canopy gaps. Gap size differently influenced bat guild activity. While the activity of open-space and narrow-space foragers did not vary with gap size, the activity of the edge-space foragers declined in broadleaved forests with increasing gap size. Bat diversity decreased with increasing gap size only in broadleaved forests. Our results demonstrate the differential influence of small-scale disturbances in old-growth forests on temperate bat guilds. Furthermore, our study highlights the importance of native broadleaved forests for the temperate bat community.

This comprehensive species‑specific chapter covers all aspects of the mammalian biology, including paleontology, physiology, genetics, reproduction and development, ecology, habitat, diet, mortality, and behavior. The economic significance and management of mammals and future challenges for research and conservation are addressed as well. The chapter includes a distribution map, a photograph of the animal, and a list of key literature

Humans have transformed most landscapes across the globe, forcing other species to adapt in order to persist in increasingly anthropogenic landscapes. Wide-ranging solitary species, such as wild felids, struggle particularly in such landscapes. Conservation planning and management for their long-term persistence critically depends on understanding what determine survival and what are the main mortality risks. We carried out the first study on annual survival and cause-specific mortality of the European wildcat with a large and unique dataset of 211 tracked individuals from 22 study areas across Europe. Furthermore, we tested the effect of environmental and human disturbance variables on the survival probability. Our results show that mortalities were mainly human-caused, with roadkill and poaching representing 57% and 22% of the total annual mortality, respectively. The annual survival probability of wildcat was 0.92 (95% CI = 0.87-0.98) for females and 0.84 (95% CI = 0.75-0.94) for males. Road density strongly impacted wildcat annual survival, whereby an increase in the mad density of motorways and primary roads by 1 km/km(2) in wildcat home-ranges increased mortality risk ninefold. Low-traffic roads, such as secondary and tertiary roads, did not significantly affect wildcat's annual survival. Our results deliver key input parameters for population viability analyses, provide planning-relevant information to maintain subcritical road densities in key wildcat habitats, and identify conditions under which wildcat-proof fences and wildlife crossing structures should be installed to decrease wildcat mortality.

Old-growth forests provide valuable habitats for bat and woodpecker species worldwide. However, the abundance of old-growth related habitat features is frequently reduced in managed forests. Bechstein's Bat (Myotis bechsteinii, KUHL 1817) is globally restricted to old-growth deciduous forests in Europe and therefore a species of high European conservation priority. Since the species prefers woodpecker cavities for roosting, woodpeckers are keystone species for Bechstein's Bat. We surveyed woodpecker activity and forest structural features within 16 roost sites of Bechsteins Bat and a random sample from the surrounding managed forest within the centre of the global distribution of Bechsteins Bat. We found above-average quantity of old-growth related habitat features in the roost sites of Bechstein's Bat. Five of six occurring woodpecker species revealed significantly higher densities in the roost sites of Bechstein's Bat, demonstrating a distinct preference of the woodpeckers and the bat in managed forests for old, deciduous stands with high basal areas of large living trees (DBH > 50 cm), bearing deadwood structures and highest available tree cavity densities. Furthermore, when comparing the direct surroundings of roost trees to their wider surroundings (16 ha), cavity density and other old-growth features reached their maxima in the direct surroundings of roost trees (mean = 19.3 cavities ha1), demonstrating a distinct habitat selection of Bechsteins Bat for patches with maximum available cavity density on large and fine spatial scale. We found a close relation between the basal area of trees with limb break offs (>20 cm base diameter) and tree cavity density, which leads us to the conclusion that specifically injured but still vital, large trees play a major role for the development and long-term persistence of tree cavities. Finally, our analyses revealed a threshold of 20 (DBH > 50 cm) or 10 (DBH > 70 cm) large deciduous trees bearing deadwood structures per ha to fulfil the minimum habitat requirements of the woodpeckers and Bechstein's Bat. Obviously, Bechsteins Bat and the associated woodpeckers explicitly selected forest patches, which most closely resembled primeval forest benchmarks, emphasising the importance of maintaining and developing forest patches, providing the mentioned habitat features within managed forests.

Urban areas are increasing globally causing fragmentation and loss of habitats for many forest dwelling species. At the same time new habitats are created, which may be exploited by species with a broad ecological tolerance. Bats form the largest mammal group living in cities in Central Europe. Species diversity might be higher in some cities compared to rural areas. Yet, habitat-specialists struggle with rapid landscape change and urban development. The Bechstein’s bat Myotis bechsteinii is dependent on old growth deciduous forests that supply tree cavities to roost in. The use of small home ranges requires high prey abundance around roosts. Despite their habitat specialization we identified two Bechstein’s maternity colonies within the metropolitan area of Frankfurt/Main (Germany). The colonies numbered 25 and 31 adult females respectively. We radio tracked individuals from both colonies ( n = 14) and compared their habitat use to that of females ( n = 79) of 11 colonies from rural woodlands. We identified a total of 29 roosts used by the two maternity colonies during summer. Roost choice of the urban forest colonies was similar to the rural forest colonies with a preference for oak trees with woodpecker holes. The distances between roosts were similar between urban and rural colonies. Habitat selection was strongly towards old forest patches. We emphasize the importance of the persistence of old forest islands within urban areas to support remaining bat colonies with a network of bat areas, similar to the important bird areas (IBAs). Specialized species that fail to adapt to the rapid changes may survive within the urban environment relying on old forest patches.

In Deutschland werden immer mehr Windenergieanlagen (WEA) an Waldstandorten errichtet. Für fast alle Fledermausarten stellen Wälder sensible Lebensräume dar, die sowohl als Quartier- als auch als Jagdgebiete genutzt werden. Neben dem Kollisionsrisiko sind an Waldstandorten auch erhebliche Lebensraumverluste zu erwarten. Um auch an Waldstandorten zu gewährleisten, dass der Ausbau der Windkraft nicht zu Lasten des Fledermausschutzes geschieht, müssen die Fledermausbestände mit spezifischen Methoden erfasst und muss auftretenden Konflikten mit angepassten Maßnahmen begegnet werden. Akustische Erfassungen an Waldstandorten sowohl an Windmessmasten als auch an WEA-Gondeln zeigen, dass über dem Wald die gleichen Arten aktiv und somit kollisionsgefährdet sind wie im Offenland, die Zwergfledermaus, die Rauhautfledermaus, die Mückenfledermaus und die ähnlich rufenden Arten Abendsegler, Kleinabendsegler, Nord-, Breitflügel- und Zweifarbfledermaus. Zudem ist die Aktivität wie auch im Offenland abhängig von Temperatur, Windgeschwindigkeit sowie Nacht- und Jahreszeit. Die Artengruppen Myotis sowie Plecotus werden an Waldstandorten nur in Ausnahmefällen über den Baumkronen aufgezeichnet. Auch die Mopsfledermaus wird äußerst selten oberhalb des Kronendachs detektiert. Für diese Arten besteht daher im Normalfall kein erhöhtes Kollisionsrisiko. In der Nähe von Quartieren, z. B. Balzquartieren des Kleinabendseglers, können ungewöhnliche Aktionsmuster auftreten. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Kollisionsrisiko im Wald nicht generell höher ist als im Offenland. Daher können auch an Waldstandorten gängige Abschaltalgorithmen zur Vermeidung von Kollisionen auf Grundlage der Ergebnisse eines Gondelmonitorings entwickelt und angewendet werden. Allerdings muss an Waldstandorten vor allem in der Nähe von Quartieren kollisionsgefährdeter Arten auf Abweichungen vom üblichen Aktivitätsverlauf geachtet werden. Eine wichtige Stellschraube für einen effizienten Schutz von Fledermauspopulationen ist die Zahl zulässiger Schlagopfer pro Anlage, die möglichst gering gewählt werden sollte. Da ein erhöhtes Kollisionsrisiko für Fledermäuse sowohl an Standorten im Wald als auch im Offenland zu erwarten ist, sind anlagenspezifische Abschaltzeiten dem Stand der Technik folgend für jede WEA zu beauflagen. Lebensraumverluste an Waldstandorten betreffen alle Arten, die Baumquartiere beziehen. Vor allem Wochenstuben sind gefährdet, wenn Anlagen in Quartierzentren gebaut werden und dadurch zahlreiche genutzte und potenzielle Quartiere zerstört werden. Darüber hinaus können Arten wie die Bechsteinfledermaus, die den geschlossenen Wald als Jagdgebiet bevorzugen, durch die Rodungsarbeiten auch essenzielle Jagdhabitate verlieren. Ob Störungen durch den Betrieb von WEA sowie mikroklimatische Veränderungen durch die Öffnung ehemals geschlossener Waldbereiche außerdem dazu führen, dass auch an die Rodungsflächen angrenzende Waldhabitate nicht mehr genutzt werden, ist Gegenstand aktueller Forschungen. Um Lebensraumverluste weitestgehend zu vermeiden, müssen die Quartierbereiche und Jagdgebiete der waldgebundenen Fledermausarten vor Errichtung der WEA intensiv erfasst werden. Hochwertige, ältere Waldgebiete mit einem großen Quartierangebot sollten von vornherein nicht in die Standortplanung für WEA einbezogen werden. Wiederholte Netzfänge bei guten Bedingungen sowie die Telemetrie reproduktiver Weibchen über einen längeren Zeitraum sind notwendig, um bedeutende Quartierbereiche und Jagdhabitate der jeweiligen Kolonien im Wald finden und abzugrenzen zu können. Nachgewiesene Quartiergebiete und essenzielle Jagdhabitate sollten aus Vorsorgegründen zuzüglich eines 200-m-Pufferbereichs von der Windkraftnutzung ausgenommen werden. Als Ausgleichsmaßnahme eignet sich vor allem der dauerhafte Nutzungsverzicht auf Waldflächen in Quartierbereichen und daran angrenzenden Flächen mit Aufwertungspotenzial in Kombination mit dem Ausbringen von Fledermauskästen.

Worldwide species density of hats is highest in forests ecosystems. European primeval forests are now reduced to a few small and isolated patches because almost all forests are subject to management. Therefore, knowledge about bats in ancient and near-natural forests in Europe is scarce. In the well-preserved forest stands of the Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park in Belarus we studied the bat community (1), the presence of maternity colonies and their preference in tree roost selection (2) and parameters of roosts used by forest dwelling hats (3). By mist-netting surveys, we identified 13 hat species and acoustic data suggested the presence of another three species. We detected 15 maternity colonies of seven bat species by radio-tracking reproductive females and 40 tree roosts within the forest. Roosts of Barbastella barbastellus, Pipistrellus pygmaeus and Plecotus auritus were almost exclusively behind the loose tree bark of decaying trees, or within narrow crevices. Myotis nauereri and Nyetalus leisleri showed a preference towards hollows (e.g., woodpecker-made cavities) within oak trees (Quercus robur). Our study shows that all tree-dwelling bat species are highly dependent on natural processes within forests that allow the formation of roost sites. Therefore, we strongly support that the natural aging process of trees, as well as the consequences of natural disturbance (e.g. through weather), should be permitted. This should extend beyond the protected zones of National Parks. In contrast, sanitary cuttings decrease the habitat's suitability for forest-dwelling hats. Finally, our results indicate that the forest complex of Belovezhskaya Pushcha and Bialowi0.a is one of the most important bat areas in Europe.

Fragmentation and habitat loss pose major threats to global biodiversity. Especially forest dwelling species with small ranges and high habitat specialisation are affected by ongoing land use change. Building projects for infrastructural purposes, expanding settlements, and extensive agricultural areas are assumed to have a high impact on these species. The European Habitat’s Directive aims to conserve and restore habitat networks to lower these impacts. We propose that the idea of securing habitat networks for protected species should be incorporated within large scale landscape planning e.g. by modelling and improving corridors for umbrella species. Within a Danish-German project we developed a model demonstrating potential connecting corridors for Muscardinus avellanarius , a specialised forest dwelling rodent species with low dispersal ability. We used presence data and eco-geographical variables to find a data based time-efficient procedure which may be applied also in other species for future landscape planning. The habitat suitability model shows that the hazel dormouse occupies a narrow niche with highly suitable habitats comprising edge habitats. It indicates the preference of forest patches, linear structures and networks of the mentioned habitats. Along with connectivity the diversity of suitable habitats diversity is the major factor predicting hazel dormouse presence. For conservation management, we calculated habitat corridors and highlight sections with missing connections. This allowed us to accentuate regions of high management interest. The results represent the foundation not only for this cross-border conservation project, but also for long-term dormouse conservation on a federal-state level.

Bats are a biodiverse mammal order providing key ecosystem services such as pest suppression, pollination and seed dispersal. Bats are also very sensitive to human actions, and significant declines in many bat populations have been recorded consequently. Many bat species find crucial roosting and foraging opportunities in European forests. Such forests have historically been exploited by humans and are still influenced by harvesting. One of the consequences of this pressure is the loss of key habitat resources, often making forests inhospitable to bats. Despite the legal protection granted to bats across Europe, the impacts of forestry on bats are still often neglected. Because forest exploitation influences forest structure at several spatial scales, economically viable forestry could become more sustainable and even favour bats. We highlight that a positive future for bat conservation that simultaneously benefits forestry is foreseeable, although more applied research is needed to develop sound management. Key future research topics include the detection of factors influencing the carrying capacity of forests, and determining the impacts of forest management and the economic importance of bats in forests. Predictive tools to inform forest managers are much needed, together with greater synergies between forest managers and bat conservationists.

An understanding of the spatial organization of endangered species is particularly important in the light of habitat degradation and fragmentation. In bats, little is known about whether and how space is organized between individuals of the same species. We investigated space use in four maternity colonies of Bechstein's bats. We were able to show for the first time that spatial organization reflects the social organization in Bechstein's bats. We found a strong segregation of foraging ranges within colonies, and an even stronger segregation between different colonies. Our results suggest that the spatial organization of females is determined by foraging efficiency. It is crucial to determine the essential characteristics of both feeding and roosting core areas. We provide a precise prediction of effective population size and space requirements. Thereby, implications for the protection of Bechstein's bats and assumedly also for other bat species with a similar social and spatial organization can be deduced.