Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a critical and escalating global health challenge that extends beyond classical genetic mechanisms of resistance acquisition. Increasing evidence highlights extracellular vesicles (EVs) as key mediators of bacterial adaptation, intercellular communication, and resistance dissemination. Among these, bacterial extracellular vesicles (BEVs) play a central role by transporting diverse cargo, including antibiotic resistance genes, mobile genetic elements, antibiotic inactivating enzymes, and immunomodulatory factors. By facilitating horizontal gene transfer (HGT) and non-genetic resistance mechanisms such as antibiotic sequestration, extracellular neutralization, and biofilm reinforcement, BEVs contribute to the emergence and persistence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) infections. This review critically examines the biogenesis, cargo composition, and functional roles of BEVs in bacterial pathogenesis and AMR, while also discussing the complementary influence of host-derived EVs on infection dynamics and antimicrobial responses. We assess emerging evidence supporting EVs as non-invasive biomarkers for resistance surveillance and as adaptable platforms for vaccine development and targeted antimicrobial delivery. Finally, we highlight key unresolved challenges, including vesicle heterogeneity, limited understanding of cargo selection mechanisms, and the lack of standardized isolation and characterization protocols, which must be addressed to enable the clinical and translational integration of EV-based strategies in combating AMR.

This study aimed to comparatively evaluate the antimicrobial and antibiofilm efficacy of helium-based cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) and methylene blue–mediated antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (MB-aPDT) against mature Streptococcus mutans biofilms formed on human enamel surfaces. In this study, standardized enamel slabs prepared from extracted human premolars were inoculated with S. mutans ATCC 35,668 and incubated for 7 days to allow mature biofilm formation in the presence of sucrose and human saliva. Specimens were randomly allocated to nine experimental groups (n = 10): negative control, 0.2

Biofilm-forming Acinetobacter baumannii, particularly multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains, present major challenges in burn wound treatment. This study evaluated the antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy of exosomes associated with nano-emodin (NE-Exos) combined with antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) against A. baumannii. Antibacterial and antibiofilm activities were evaluated against the standard strain (ATCC 19606) and clinical isolates of A. baumannii, including MDR, extensively drug-resistant (XDR), and non-MDR/non-XDR strains. Minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations (MIC, MBC), biofilm-inhibitory and eradication concentrations (MBIC, MBEC), drug release, hemolysis, and expression of biofilm-associated genes (abaI, bap) were evaluated. Nano-emodin and NE-Exos showed inhibitory and antibacterial activities with MIC and MBC values ranging from 15 to 39 μg/mL and 30 to 156 μg/mL, respectively. NE-Exos showed better antibiofilm efficacy compared to nano-emodin alone, especially in MDR isolates. The release of nano-emodin from NE-Exos reached 30.73

In recent years, Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT), or so-called low-level laser therapy, has gained dental researchers' attention as a promising non-invasive treatment method, which can be implemented for neurosensory recovery of the inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) following iatrogenic trauma caused by dental procedures, such as orthognathic surgery, implant placement, and molar extractions. This study reviews the findings from clinical studies within the past 10 years evaluating the efficacy of PBMT in these settings. Through assessing varying results, we understood that generally they accelerate nerve healing and improve patient-reported outcomes, such as oral health-related quality of life. The known mechanism of action for low-intensity light sources, typically lasers or LEDs, that are used in PBMT is to enhance cellular metabolism, reduce inflammation, and promote nerve regeneration. The most commonly applied parameters of PBMT in the dental practice are wavelengths between 630 and 1064 nm, energy densities between 3 and 12 J/cm2, and treatment time between 15 and 90 s per point per session. Although its clinical potential is great, the extensive application of PBMT is restricted due to variability in treatment protocols and lack of standardization. This review emphasizes the need for further studies that include longer follow-ups and more consistent protocols, which can optimize the application of PBMT, making it incorporable into routine clinical practice for neurosensory recovery following dental procedures.

Introduction: This study aimed to answer “Can artificial intelligence help to prevent and manage oral infections? How can it help us? What we know and what we do not know?”. Materials and Methods: Artificial intelligence-driven Internet of Things systems enable real-time monitoring of the oral environment and early identification of cariogenic and inflammatory factors. In the present narrative review, the authors used keywords such as “Artificial Intelligence”, “Biofilms”, “Dental Caries”, “Internet of Things”, and “Periodontitis”. They conducted a literature search via Google Scholar and PubMed from January 2015 to November 2025. Results: Artificial intelligence algorithms have shown high accuracy in diagnosing oral and periodontal diseases, predicting microbial resistance, and optimizing antimicrobial therapies. Integration of artificial intelligence with antimicrobial robots represents a promising approach for biofilm detection, degradation, and targeted removal. These technologies collectively enhance personalized dental care and support preventive, data-based decision-making in dentistry. Conclusion: Artificial intelligence and Internet of Things integration offer transformative potential in oral healthcare by improving early detection, prevention, and management of oral infections. However, further clinical studies, data standardization, and ethical considerations are necessary for safe and effective implementation of these technologies in dental practice.

Clear aligner therapy (CAT) is widely used in adult orthodontic treatment, but prolonged treatment duration remains a major limitation. Photobiomodulation therapy (PBMT) has been proposed as a noninvasive adjunct to accelerate tooth movement by modulating cellular activity and bone remodeling. This narrative review summarizes the literature on PBMT in orthodontic tooth movement, with particular attention to its application in CAT, effects on treatment efficiency, and safety considerations. Published clinical studies generally suggest that PBMT may be associated with faster alignment and shorter treatment duration. In one historical prospective study of 170 Invisalign patients, the crowding resolution rate was 0.33 mm/week in the PBMT group versus 0.21 mm/week in controls, with a 57.5-week reduction in treatment time. A retrospective study of 84 clear aligner patients found mean treatment durations of 528 ± 323 days with PBMT compared with 719 ± 220 days in controls, representing a 26.6% reduction. The reviewed literature also suggests that wavelengths in the 780 to 830 nm range are commonly used and that PBMT may increase tooth movement speed by approximately 24%, although findings remain heterogeneous across protocols. CBCT-based studies found no statistically significant difference in root volume change between PBMT and control groups. Overall, PBMT appears promising as an adjunct for accelerating tooth movement during CAT, particularly in adult patients treated with near-infrared protocols, although current evidence remains limited and heterogeneous. Safety data are reassuring but still limited. Further standardized randomized clinical trials are needed to define optimal dosing and confirm long-term clinical benefits and safety.

This study aimed to compare the antimicrobial effects of Propolis, Calcium Hydroxide (CH), Triple Antibiotic Paste (TAP), and modified TAP (mTAP) as intracanal medicaments on tubular dentin inoculated with a dual-species biofilm. In this ex vivo study, dentin cylinders were obtained from the root canals of 56 single-rooted extracted teeth, which were instrumented and inoculated with Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) and Actinomyces naeslundii (A. naeslundii) suspensions to allow biofilm formation. After that, the cylinders were randomly assigned to five groups for a 7-day exposure to Propolis, TAP, mTAP (penicillin G), and Calcium Hydroxide (CH), and a no-medicament negative control group. Colonies were counted in dentin samples obtained from 200 μm to 400 μm depths and analyzed using ANOVA, Shapiro-Wilk, Levene, Tukey, robust Welch, Games-Howell, Fisher’s exact, Wilcoxon, and paired t tests (α = 0.05). All medicaments significantly decreased the colony counts (P < 0.05). CH, TAP, and mTAP showed similar optimal efficacy at both depths, whereas Propolis caused a significant reduction in bacterial count only at 200 μm (P = 0.047). Effect sizes were very high for both microorganisms. Dentin depth had a significant effect on the bacterial count of both microorganisms, and the load of both microorganisms was significantly lower at 400 μm than 200 μm depth (P < 0.001). TAP and mTAP demonstrated high efficacy, and CH showed acceptable efficacy for elimination of E. faecalis and A. naeslundii dual-species biofilm. Propolis showed lower efficacy, highlighting the need for further modifications to enhance its penetration depth.

Introduction: Microbial resistance is a global challenge for conventional antimicrobial methods such as chlorhexidine (CHX) and sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). Among the recently developed approaches, photodynamic therapy (PDT) and cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) have garnered attention. This study reviews the effectiveness of CAP and PDT relative to each other and to other antimicrobial methods. Methods: The primary keywords, including "antimicrobial photodynamic therapy," "cold plasma," "disinfection," and "oral pathogens," were used in a literature search across databases such as Google Scholar and PubMed, covering the period from January 2016 to September 2025. Results: CAP and PDT showed effective antimicrobial effects against oral pathogens. For CAP, main parameters include gas composition (He/O₂), power (55 W), and exposure duration (60-180 seconds). A He/O₂ plasma jet reduced the bacterial load in Enterococcus faecalis biofilms. The efficacy of PDT was different based on the types of photosensitizers and light parameters. Indocyanine green (0.2%) with an 810-nm laser (12 J/cm2, 60 s) was effective against Streptococcus mutans, while Methylene blue (0.02%) with a 660-nm laser (20 J/cm2, 100 s) showed higher biofilm reduction. Both methods surpassed conventional antimicrobial agents such as CHX and NaOCl, especially in biofilm penetration. Conclusion: CAP and PDT are promising alternatives to conventional antimicrobial methods, offering effective control of oral pathogens with lower side effects than CHX and NaOCl. However, further research is needed to optimize treatment parameters and determine the most suitable clinical applications for each method.

BACKGROUND:Periodontitis, a prevalent infectious disease driven by polymicrobial dental plaque biofilms, is associated with systemic health risks. Porphyromonas gingivalis acts as a keystone pathogen within these biofilms, with the fimA gene encoding the major fimbrial subunit FimA serving as a key virulence factor facilitating bacterial adhesion and biofilm formation, critical for persistence and periodontal destruction. Berberine, a benzylisoquinoline alkaloid with antimicrobial properties, is limited by poor solubility and bioavailability. This study explores antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) using berberine-loaded human dental pulp stem cell-derived exosomes (Ber@hDPSCs-Exos) to enhance anti-biofilm efficacy against P. gingivalis. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Exosomes were isolated from hDPSCs and characterized by transmission electron microscopy, flow cytometry (CD81 expression), and Bradford assay. Berberine was loaded into exosomes via ultrasonication, with encapsulation efficiency assessed by UV spectrophotometry. The minimum biofilm inhibitory concentration (MBIC) of Ber@hDPSCs-Exos, minimum biofilm inhibitory dose (MBID) of a 405 nm diode laser, and MBIC of aPDT were determined against P. gingivalis biofilms using colorimetric assays. The expression of the fimA virulence gene was evaluated via quantitative real-time PCR. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA (P < 0.05). RESULTS:hDPSCs-Exos exhibited spherical morphology, high CD81 expression (80.3%), and a protein concentration of 460.75 µg/mL. Berberine encapsulation efficiency was 74.9%. Ber@hDPSCs-Exos inhibited P. gingivalis biofilm formation with an MBIC of 125 µg/mL, while the diode laser MBID was 240 s (103.9 J/cm²). aPDT with 31.2 µg/mL Ber@hDPSCs-Exos and 60 s irradiation significantly reduced biofilm biomass (OD570 nm ∼2.44). Sub-MBIC aPDT (15.6 µg/mL, 120 s) downregulated fimA expression by 3.1-fold (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION:Ber@hDPSCs-Exos-based aPDT effectively inhibits P. gingivalis biofilm formation and reduces fimA expression, offering a promising adjunctive treatment for periodontitis management. Further in vivo studies are required to confirm the clinical potential of this approach.

Dental caries is a prevalent microbial disease, with Streptococcus mutans as a major pathogen. Increasing antibiotic resistance highlights the need for alternative, non-antibiotic strategies. This study evaluated the antimicrobial and anti-virulence potential of nano-hypericin (nHyp)-mediated antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) combined with Lactobacillus casei-derived postbiotic (PSLC). nHyp was synthesized and characterized by transmission electron microscopy, UV–Vis spectroscopy, and dynamic light scattering, confirming quasi-spherical nanoparticles ( 47 nm). PSLC was purified via acid precipitation and chemically profiled by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry, revealing diketopiperazines, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, and phenolic compounds. Planktonic S. mutans were treated with nHyp (1.9–1000 µg/mL) ± blue laser irradiation (450 ± 5 nm, 1–5 min), alone or combined with PSLC at 1/2 × MIC (32 µg/mL). Bacterial viability was measured by colony forming unit (CFU)/mL, and gtfB expression quantified by qRT-PCR. nHyp-mediated aPDT induced dose- and time-dependent reductions in bacterial viability (up to 81

Vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC) is a frequent fungal infection in women of reproductive age, primarily caused by Candida albicans and non-albicans Candida (NAC) species. The growing resistance to fluconazole (FLZ) and biofilm formation contribute to persistent and recurrent infections. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies targeting resistant strains and biofilms are urgently needed. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of VVC, identify Candida species, assess FLZ resistance, and evaluate the antifungal and antibiofilm activities of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived supernatant (SBMMSC). From 2024 to 2025, 438 clinical samples from patients suspected of VVC were analyzed. Candida isolates were identified by culture and multiplex PCR. FLZ susceptibility was assessed using disk diffusion, and MIC values were determined for FLZ-resistant isolates (FLZ-RI). The antifungal and antibiofilm effects of SBMMSC and its impact on ALS3 and ERG11 gene expression were evaluated using qRT-PCR. A total of 106 VVC cases were confirmed, yielding 116 Candida isolates. C. albicans was the predominant species, accounting for 68 isolates (58.6

Background:Concentrated Growth Factor (CGF), derived from a specific centrifugation protocol designed to optimize the concentration of growth factors and platelet-derived cytokines, has been investigated in the context of regenerative treatments. However, the potential antibiofilm properties of CGF against endodontic pathogens remain to be clarified. This in vitro study evaluated the antimicrobial effectiveness of CGF against the biofilms of Enterococcus faecalis and Candida albicans. Material and Methods:Blood samples were collected from otherwise healthy volunteers. A dedicated centrifugation device and protocol were used for CGF preparation. The antimicrobial activity of the CGF was observed and recorded against standard strains of E. faecalis and C. albicans using a disc agar diffusion method to determine the inhibition zone, and broth microdilution to measure the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC). A crystal violet assay and colony-forming unit (CFU) counts were conducted for biofilm assessment, using sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) 5.25% as a positive control. This was followed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to analyze the morphology of the biofilm formed on the dentinal surface. A statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey's multiple comparison test with GraphPad Prism (version 8.4.3). Results:An inhibition zone was observed in both the CGF and NaOCl groups against both microorganisms. MIC was found for CGF against both microorganisms at a concentration of 50% v/v, while MBC and MFC were obtained at a concentration of 100% v/v. CFU counting revealed a significant reduction in viable microbial cells following the treatment of E. faecalis and C. albicans biofilms with NaOCl and CGF compared to the control group (P&lt;0.05). NaOCl resulted in the most pronounced reduction of the biofilms (76.86% for E. faecalis and 86.52% for C. albicans). However, there was a 32.97% reduction of the viable microbial cells of E. faecalis and a 35.97% reduction of the viable microbial cells of C. albicans in biofilm treated with CGF. The SEM results also showed a notable decrease in the concentration of fungal and bacterial cells. Conclusions:The present study demonstrated that CGF may exhibit antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties against endodontic pathogens. Hence, CGF may contribute to reducing microbial load and enhancing the outcome of regenerative treatments within infected root canal systems.

The treatment of periodontitis remains challenging because it requires both infection control and tissue repair. In this study, a multifunctional injectable hydrogel is based on oxidized sodium alginate (Alg-OX) and gelatin, incorporating copper-tannic acid (CuT) and bioactive glass (BG), with the intention of synergistically addressing infection control and treating periodontal defects are designed. The hydrogel demonstrate inherent antibacterial activity, while the presence of BG has the potential to release osteoconductive ions, promoting tissue mineralization. Upon near-infrared (NIR) irradiation, the hydrogel exhibited photothermal conversion, thereby demonstrating an antibacterial effect against Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans through localized mild hyperthermia. The hydrogels also exhibit an antibacterial effect against Gram-positive bacteria, although this effect was less robust against them. Selectively targeting Gram-negative species minimizes disruption to beneficial Gram-positive commensals, preserving the oral microbial balance and reducing the risk of secondary dysbiosis. Additionally, the hydrogel demonstrates favorable injectability, biocompatibility, and the ability to support cell viability and migration. These integrated functions enable the hydrogel to effectively suppress bacterial colonization and accelerate periodontal tissue regeneration. Altogether, this composite hydrogel represents has the potential to be used for treating periodontitis, offering biocompatibility, antibacterial, and potential regenerative characteristics.

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has been investigated as a minimally invasive approach that could enhance reproductive health by preserving the reproductive tract microbiome. The disturbances in the reproductive tract microbiome, including the loss of Lactobacillus-dominated communities and the overgrowth of opportunistic or pathogenic bacteria, are associated with infertility. PDT can be used to eliminate specific pathogens or precancerous lesions, and may modulate the microbiome in the female genital tract. Unlike conventional antimicrobial treatments, which may also affect beneficial microorganisms, PDT can selectively inactivate pathogenic microbes through the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Maintaining a balanced cervicovaginal microbiome is of great importance in achieving reproductive success. By reducing pathogenic microbial load and limiting damage to commensal bacteria, PDT may contribute to improving microbial balance in the cervicovaginal environment. In recent years, there has been increasing attention to therapeutic strategies in reproductive medicine that preserve the microbiome, emphasizing the importance of methods that control infection while maintaining a balanced microbial ecosystem. This narrative mini‑review summarizes current findings on the use of PDT for microbial modulation in the female reproductive tract and discusses its relevance in the treatment of infertility associated with reproductive tract microbial dysbiosis.

BACKGROUND AND AIM:This study assessed the effects of 808 nm diode laser on the gene expression of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa beta ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG), key regulators of bone remodeling, in exosomes derived from osteoblast-like cells. MATERIALS AND METHODS:The cultured MG63 cells were subjected to 808 nm diode laser irradiation at energy densities of 3 J/cm², 6 J/cm², and 9 J/cm², along with a control group with no intervention. The irradiation sessions were conducted twice, with a 24-hour interval between them. Next the exosomes from the target cells were isolated, and the mRNA levels of the RANKL and OPG genes were assessed using qPCR. RESULTS:The OPG mRNA level in exosomes extracted from cells exposed to 9 J/cm² was found to be significantly elevated compared to both the control group and 6 J/cm². Conversely, the mRNA level of RANKL in group exposed to 9 J/cm² was significantly reduced in comparison to the control group and 6 J/cm². Additionally, the RANKL mRNA level in 6 J/cm² was also significantly lower than that observed in the control group and 3 J/cm². CONCLUSION:Using 808 nm diode laser at an energy density of 9 J/cm² resulted in an upregulation of exosomal mRNA for OPG and a downregulation of RANKL. Photobiomodulation may enhance bone regeneration via exosomal signaling. Considering the promising clinical application of exosomes in bone regeneration, our results highlight the potential of photobiomodulation to manipulate exosomal content for therapeutic purposes.

BACKGROUND:This study evaluated the photocatalytic antimicrobial effect of titanium dioxide (TiO2)-coated clear aligners against Streptococcus mutans and assessed the impact of TiO2 coating on surface microhardness and optical transparency. MATERIALS AND METHODS:Clear aligner samples (10 × 10 × 2 mm) were coated with different concentrations of TiO2 (1 %, 2 %, and 4 %) via submerging. Uniformity of particle distribution and surface microhardness were measured using scanning electron microscope (SEM) and Vickers hardness testing, respectively. Optical transparency was assessed via ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry. After incubation in artificial saliva, samples were exposed to ultraviolet A (UVA) at 320 nm for 1 min with an energy density of 18.75 J/cm²). Biofilm inhibition was evaluated by crystal violet colorimetric assay, measuring optical density at 595 nm. Expression of gtfB gene was analyzed via quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. RESULTS:SEM images confirmed uniform nanoparticle distribution with no surface damage. The combination of TiO2 coating and UVA exposure significantly reduced biofilm formation, with the 4 % TiO2 group demonstrating the highest inhibitory effect compared to the control group (P < 0.001). Additionally, expression of the gtfB gene was significantly downregulated in this group (-6.35 ± 0.30). Surface microhardness showed a non-significant increase with higher TiO2 concentrations, suggesting enhanced wear resistance without compromising material properties. However, the 4 % TiO2 coating resulted in a significant reduction in optical transparency compared to other groups (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION:While 4 % TiO2 coating with UVA activation achieved the strongest antibiofilm effect, it compromised optical transparency. The 2 % TiO2 coating preserved aesthetics and still provided substantial antimicrobial activity, making it the more practical clinical option.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a prevalent malignancy worldwide and a leading cause of cancer-related mortality, influenced by both genetic predisposition and environmental factors. Gut dysbiosis, characterized by an imbalance in the gut microbiome, has been identified as a significant contributor to CRC progression. Although considerable progress has been made in understanding the relationship between the gut microbiome and CRC, the precise underlying mechanisms remain incompletely elucidated. Recent studies emphasize the role of gut microorganisms in inducing DNA damage, promoting inflammation, and contributing to drug resistance, positioning the microbiome as a promising target for CRC prevention and therapy. This review examines the intricate relationship between gut microbiota and CRC, with a focus on tumorigenesis mechanisms and the potential utility of specific bacterial species as clinical biomarkers. Dysbiosis, often driven by dietary and environmental factors, has been implicated in CRC pathogenesis, with bacterial virulence factors, inflammatory pathways, and microbial metabolites playing central roles in disease progression. Strategies for modulating the gut microbiome, such as probiotic supplementation and other microbiome-targeted interventions, represent emerging therapeutic approaches. Additionally, this review discusses the challenges associated with translating microbiome research into clinical practice and proposes potential solutions. By advancing the understanding of microbiota-CRC interactions, this research offers valuable insights into novel strategies for CRC prevention, early detection, and treatment. Future studies aim to refine microbiome-based interventions, ultimately improving the clinical management of CRC.

BACKGROUND:This in vitro study was conducted to evaluate the impact of photodynamic therapy (PDT) using modified acrylic resin with titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NPs) on Candida albicans biofilm, physico-mechanical properties, and pro-inflammatory gene expression. MATERIALS AND METHODS:The biofilm inhibition test was used to assess the antimicrobial effectiveness against C. albicans biofilm. The levels of gene expression for TNF-α and IL-6 in human gingival fibroblast (HGF) cell line were examined using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The roughness, flexural strength, and microhardness of modified acrylic resin with different concentrations of TiO2NPs (0 %, 1 %, 2 %, and 3 %) were measured using a profilometer, a universal testing machine, and a digital hardness tester, respectively. RESULTS:The C. albicans biofilm was most effectively reduced by 0.2 % chlorhexidine (CHX), showing the lowest colony count (5.94 ± 0.46 × 106 CFU/mL). Comparable results were observed with 3 % TiO2NPs-PDT (7.37 ± 1.34 × 106 CFU/mL, P = 0.300). The colony counts from 2 % TiO2NPs-PDT (9.21 ± 1.25 × 106 CFU/mL) was not significantly different from 3 % TiO2NPs-PDT (P = 0.529) but was notably higher than that of 0.2 % CHX (P = 0.004). The expression of TNF-α and IL-6 genes decreased significantly in HGF cell line when exposed to 2 % and 3 % TiO2NPs-PDT. Microhardness and flexural strength demonstrated a direct correlation with the concentration of TiO2NPs, while roughness showed an inverse correlation. Additionally, all groups exceeded the ISO standards for flexural strength. CONCLUSION:3 % TiO2NPs-PDT reduced C. albicans biofilm and downregulated the pro-inflammatory gene expression without adversely affecting the properties of the acrylic resin, making it suitable for clinical use.