Purpose Human milk (HM) composition is influenced by factors, like maternal diet and body stores, among other factors. For evaluating the influence of maternal fatty acid (FA) status on milk FA composition, the correlation between FA content in HM and in maternal plasma, erythrocytes, and adipose tissue was investigated. Methods 223 European women who delivered at term, provided HM samples over first four months of lactation. Venous blood and adipose tissue (only from mothers who consented and underwent a C-section delivery) were sampled at delivery. FAs were assessed in plasma, erythrocytes, adipose tissue, and HM. Evolution of HM FAs over lactation and correlations between FA content in milk and tissues and between mother’s blood and cord blood were established. Results During lactation, arachidonic acid (ARA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) significantly decreased, while linoleic acid (LA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) remained stable. Positive correlations were observed between HM and adipose tissue for palmitic, stearic, oleic, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Correlations were found between milk and plasma for oleic, LA, ARA, ALA, DHA, monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), and PUFAs. No correlation was observed between erythrocytes and HM FAs. LA and ALA were more concentrated in maternal blood than in infant blood, contrary to ARA and DHA, supporting that biomagnification of LCPUFAs may have occurred during pregnancy. Conclusions These data show that maternal adipose tissue rather than erythrocytes may serve as reservoir of PUFAs and LCPUFAs for human milk. Plasma also supplies PUFAs and LCPUFAs to maternal milk. If both, adipose tissue and plasma PUFAs, are reflection of dietary intake, it is necessary to provide PUFAs and LCPUFAs during pregnancy or even before conception and lactation to ensure availability for mothers and enough supply for the infant via HM.

Eating habits of lactating women can influence the nutrient composition of human milk, which in turn influences nutrient intake of breastfed infants. The aim of the present study was to identify food patterns and nutritional adequacy among lactating women in Europe. Data from a multicentre European longitudinal cohort (ATLAS study) were analysed to identify dietary patterns using cluster analysis. Dietary information from 180 lactating women was obtained using 3-d food diaries over the first 4 months of lactation. Four dietary patterns were identified: 'vege-oils', 'fish-poultry', 'confectionery-salads' and 'mixed dishes'. Nutrition adequacy was not significantly different between clusters, but the 'vege-oils' cluster tended to yield the highest nutrition adequacy measured by Mean Adequacy Ratio. Compared with European dietary reference values (DRVs) for lactating women, women in all clusters had inadequate intakes of energy, pantothenic acid, folate, vitamin C, vitamin A, vitamin D, zinc, iodine, potassium and linoleic acid. Adequate intake for fibre and α-linolenic acid was only achieved in the 'vege-oils' cluster. Overall, fat intake was above DRVs. The present study showed that various dietary patterns do not adequately supply all nutrients, indicating a need to promote overall healthy dietary habits for European lactating women.

This work reviews available data on dietary intakes of total fat, saturated fatty acids (SFA) and individual polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in children in different countries worldwide and for the first time, compares them with recent international recommendations. Studies published before June 2021 reporting total fat, total SFA and individual PUFA intakes in children aged 1–7 y were included. Observed intakes were evaluated against FAO/WHO and EFSA recommendations. 65 studies from 33 countries were included. Fat intake was too low in 88% of studies in young children (1–3 y). SFA intake was >10%E in 69–73% of children, especially in Europe. Linoleic acid intake was <3%E in 24% of studies in 1–2 y olds and within FAO/WHO recommendations among all other ages. Alpha-linolenic acid intake was <0.5%E in almost half of studies. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid + DHA intakes were below recommendations in most studies. In summary, while total fat intake was too low among younger children, SFA intake was above, especially in Europe and n-3 PUFA intake, especially DHA, were below recommendations for all ages. Intake of n-3 PUFA, especially DHA, is generally suboptimal. More data, particularly from developing countries, are required to refine these findings and guide implementation of adapted nutrition policies.

Partially hydrogenated oils (PHO), the products of incomplete catalytic hydrogenation of food oils, have been widely employed by the food industry for more than a century. Their exceptional stability and technologic characteristics made them the preferred choice for the production of several food products including margarines, bakery goods, and frying oils. Some of these highly prized characteristics were provided by the high content intransfatty acids (TFA), defined as fatty acids with one or more isolated double bond in trans configuration. The discovery of negative health effects associated with dietary intake of TFA triggered world-wide a wave of regulatory actions aimed to curb their consumption. PHO became the main target of most campaigns aimed to reduce consumption of TFA, and their fortune in the food industry progressively faded. At the 2017, AOCS Annual Meeting in Orlando, a group of experts from regulatory agencies and industry from North America and Europe met to discuss the current status of government regulations and industry adaptations regarding the productions and use of PHO. The discussion was enriched by including the impact on fats and oils production of the 2016 amendment of the Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976 (TSCA). The present publication may not include all regulatory changes that took place after this symposium, in 2017.

Polar lipids are amphiphilic lipids with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail. Polar lipids mainly include phospholipids and sphingolipids. They are structural components of neural tissues, with the peak rate of accretion overlapping with neurodevelopmental milestones. The critical role of polar lipids in cognitive development is thought to be mediated through the regulation of signal transduction, myelination, and synaptic plasticity. Animal products (egg, meat, and dairy) are the major dietary sources of polar lipids for children and adults, whereas human milk and infant formula provide polar lipids to infants. Due to the differences observed in both concentration and proportion of polar lipids in human milk, the estimated daily intake in infants encompasses a wide range. In addition, health authorities define neither intake recommendations nor guidelines for polar lipid intake. However, adequate intake is defined for 2 nutrients that are elements of these polar lipids, namely choline and DHA. To date, limited studies exist on the brain bioavailability of dietary polar lipids via either placental transfer or the blood-brain barrier. Nevertheless, due to their role in pre- and postnatal development of the brain, there is a growing interest for the use of gangliosides, which are sphingolipids, as a dietary supplement for pregnant/lactating mothers or infants. In line with this, supplementing gangliosides and phospholipids in wild-type animals and healthy infants does suggest some positive effects on cognitive performance. Whether there is indeed added benefit of supplementing polar lipids in pregnant/lactating mothers or infants requires more clinical research. In this article, we report findings of a review of the state-of-the-art evidence on polar lipid supplementation and cognitive development. Dietary sources, recommended intake, and brain bioavailability of polar lipids are also discussed.

We conducted a systematic review of randomised controlled trials (RCT) of increased intake of arachidonic acid (ARA) on fatty acid status and health outcomes in humans. We identified twenty-two articles from fourteen RCT. Most studies were conducted in adults. These used between 80 and 2000 mg ARA per d and were of 1-12 weeks duration. Supplementation with ARA doses as low as 80 mg/d increased the content of ARA in different blood fractions. Overall there seem to be few marked benefits for adults of increasing ARA intake from the typical usual intake of 100-200 mg/d to as much as 1000 mg/d; the few studies using higher doses (1500 or 2000 mg/d) also report little benefit. However, there may be an impact of ARA on cognitive and muscle function which could be particularly relevant in the ageing population. The studies reviewed here suggest no adverse effects in adults of increased ARA intake up to at least 1000-1500 mg/d on blood lipids, platelet aggregation and blood clotting, immune function, inflammation or urinary excretion of ARA metabolites. However, in many areas there are insufficient studies to make firm conclusions, and higher intakes of ARA are deserving of further study. Based on the RCT reviewed, there are not enough data to make any recommendations for specific health effects of ARA intake.

Research into the analysis, physical properties and health effects of dietary fibre has continued steadily over the last 40-50 years. From the knowledge gained, countries have developed guidelines for their populations on the optimal amount of fibre to be consumed each day. Food composition tables from many countries now contain values for the dietary fibre content of foods, and, from these, combined with dietary surveys, population intakes have been determined. The present review assessed the uniformity of the analytical methods used, health claims permitted, recommendations and intakes, particularly from national surveys across Europe and around the world. It also assessed current knowledge on health effects of dietary fibre and related the impact of different fibre types on health. The overall intent was to be able to provide more detailed guidance on the types of fibre which should be consumed for good health, rather than simply a total intake figure, the current situation. Analysis of data indicated a fair degree of uniformity in the definition of dietary fibre, the method used for analysis, the recommended amount to be consumed and a growing literature on effects on digestive health and disease risk. However, national dietary survey data showed that intakes do not reach recommendations and very few countries provide guidance on the types of fibre that are preferable to achieve recommended intakes. Research gaps were identified and ideas suggested to provide information for more detailed advice to the public about specific food sources that should be consumed to achieve health benefits.

An abstract is not available for this content so a preview has been provided. As you have access to this content, a full PDF is available via the ‘Save PDF’ action button.

During the IUNS Council Meeting in Amsterdam (The Netherlands) in February 2014, the Council reviewed the IUNS Committees and Task Forces to determine those that had completed their charge, and those that were still active and productive. The review resulted in continuing task forces that had active agendas yet to accomplish, and in establishing some new task forces to meet a specific need. The IUNS Task Forces are formed to tackle global issues on nutrition of current relevance. Each task force has a chairperson or chair persons, and they are encouraged to include an early-career nutrition scientist in the team as a way to build capacity. Task forces are approved for a period of four years. Typical task force outputs are publications and workshops at international conferences. Task forces undergo review every four years to ensure they have met their mandate. Most activities are carried out using electronic media. Moreover, they may organize workshops or symposia on their assigned topics at a nutrition conference under the umbrella of IUNS. IUNS encourages the publication of meeting reports and task force outputs in professional journals, and reports will be published on the IUNS website.

Background: Earlier reviews indicated that in many countries adults, children and adolescents consume on an average less polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) than recommended by the Food and Agriculture Organisation/World Health Organisation. Summary: The intake of total and individual n-3 and n-6 PUFAs in European infants, children, adolescents, elderly and pregnant/lactating women was evaluated systematically. Results: The evaluations were done against recommendations of the European Food Safety Authority. Key Messages: Fifty-three studies from 17 different European countries reported an intake of total n-3 and n-6 PUFAs and/or individual n-3 or n-6 PUFAs in at least one of the specific population groups: 10 in pregnant women, 4 in lactating women, 3 in infants 6-12 months, 6 in children 1-3 years, 11 in children 4-9 years, 8 in adolescents 10-18 years and 11 in elderly >65 years. Mean linoleic acid intake was within the recommendation (4 energy percentage [E%]) in 52% of the countries, with inadequate intakes more likely in lactating women, adolescents and elderly. Mean α-linolenic acid intake was within the recommendation (0.5 E%) in 77% of the countries. In 26% of the countries, mean eicosapentaenoic acid and/or docosahexaenoic acid intake was as recommended. These results indicate that intake of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs may be suboptimal in specific population groups in Europe.

Digestible carbohydrates are one of the main sources of dietary energy in infancy and childhood and are essential for growth and development. The aim of this narrative review is to outline the intakes of digestible carbohydrates and their role in health and disease, including the development of food preferences, as well the consequences of excess carbohydrate. Key experts in these fields provided up-to-date reviews of the literature. A search of available information on dietary intakes of children below the age of 4 years was conducted from 1985 up to 2010. Articles and reports including information about sugars and/or starch intakes were selected. A number of factors limit the ability to obtain an overall picture of carbohydrate intakes and food sources in this age group. These include small numbers of intake studies, differing approaches to analysing carbohydrate, a variety of terms used to describe sugars intakes and a dearth of information about starch intakes. Data suggest that sweet taste is preferred in infancy and later food choices. There are few established adverse consequences of high intakes of digestible carbohydrate for young children. The greatest evidence is for dental caries, although this is influenced by high intake frequency and poor oral hygiene. Evidence for detrimental effects on nutrient dilution, obesity, diabetes or cognition is limited. In infants, minimum carbohydrate (mainly lactose) intake should be 40% of total energy, gradually increasing to 55% energy by the age of 2 years.

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP) are considered conditionally essential nutrients for the infant born prematurely, and attempts are being made to match fatty acid profiles of formula and breast fed infants. In this double-blind, randomized study we investigated the effects of a formula enriched with both n-6 and n-3 LCP on plasma fatty acid profiles, antioxidant status and growth of premature infants. 29 infants received either a formula devoid of LCP or a LCP supplemented formula (0.5 g/100 g fat linoleic acid metabolites, 0.8 g/100 g fat alpha-linolenic acid metabolites). 17 breast fed infants served as a control group. At study entry as well as two and four weeks later, plasma and urine samples were collected, growth data obtained and food tolerance was documented. At the end of the four week study period, plasma docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels of supplemented infants were significantly higher than those of unsupplemented infants and similar to those of infants fed human milk. Plasma n-6 LCP concentrations including arachidonic acid (AA) were similar between groups. The plasma alpha-tocopherol levels of breast fed and supplemented infants were similar and tended to be lower than in infants fed the formula devoid of LCP. Urinary malondialdehyde (MDA) excretion of formula fed infants was significantly higher compared to infants fed human milk, but did not differ between the two formula groups. Parameters of growth and milk tolerance did not differ between groups. Our results demonstrate that plasma LCP levels similar to those of breast fed infants can be achieved with the LCP supplemented formula used in this trial, without evidence of adverse effects of the LCP enrichment.

Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and NutritionVolume 30, Issue 2 p. 115-130 Invited Review Nutritional Implications of Replacing Bovine Milk Fat With Vegetable Oil in Infant Formulas Alvin Berger, Corresponding Author Alvin Berger n/[email protected] Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Lausanne, SwitzerlandAddress correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. A. Berger, Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Vers-chez-les-Blanc 1000, Lausanne 26, Switzerland.Search for more papers by this authorMathilde Fleith, Mathilde Fleith Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Lausanne, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this authorGayle Crozier, Gayle Crozier Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Lausanne, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this author Alvin Berger, Corresponding Author Alvin Berger n/[email protected] Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Lausanne, SwitzerlandAddress correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. A. Berger, Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Vers-chez-les-Blanc 1000, Lausanne 26, Switzerland.Search for more papers by this authorMathilde Fleith, Mathilde Fleith Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Lausanne, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this authorGayle Crozier, Gayle Crozier Department of Nutrition, Nestle Research Center, Nestec SA, Lausanne, SwitzerlandSearch for more papers by this author First published: 01 February 2000 https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1536-4801.2000.tb02690.xRead the full textAbout ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onEmailFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. REFERENCES 1Van der Meer R, Bovee-Oudenhoven IMJ, Sesink ALA, Kleibeuker JH. Milk products and intestinal health. Int Dairy J 1998; 8: 163–70. 10.1016/S0958-6946(98)80001-0 Web of Science®Google Scholar 2Picciano MF. Vitamins in milk. A: Water-soluble vitamins in human milk. In: RG Jensen, ed. Handbook of milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1995: 675–88. 10.1016/B978-012384430-9/50028-7 Google Scholar 3Lawrence RA, Friedman LR. Contaminants in milk. A: Drugs and contaminants in human milk. In: RG Jensen, ed. Handbook of milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1995: 857–87. 10.1016/B978-012384430-9/50039-1 Google Scholar 4Ellis LA, Mastro AM, Picciano MF. Do milk-borne cytokines and hormones influence neonatal immune cell function? J Nutr 1997; 127: 985S–8S. 10.1093/jn/127.5.985S CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 5Gil A, Uauy R. Nucleotides and related compounds in human and bovine milks. In: RG Jensen, ed. Handbook of milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1995: 436–64. 10.1016/B978-012384430-9/50020-2 Web of Science®Google Scholar 6Flores CA, Hu C, Edmond J, Koldovsky O. Milk carnitine affects organ carnitine concentration in newborn rats. J Nutr 1996; 126: 1673–82. 10.1093/jn/126.6.1673 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 7Swaisgood HE. Enzymes indigenous to bovine milk. In: RG Jensen, ed. Handbook of milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1995: 472–6. 10.1016/B978-0-12-384430-9.50047-0 Google Scholar 8Goldman AS, Goldblum RM. Defense agents in milk. A. Defense agents in human milk. In: RG Jensen, ed. Handbook of milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1995: 727–45. 10.1016/B978-012384430-9/50033-0 Google Scholar 9Parodi PW. Conjugated linoleic acid and other anticarcinogenic agents of bovine milk fat. J Dairy Sci 1999; 82: 1339–49. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(99)75358-0 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 10Newburg DS. Do the binding properties of oligosaccharides in milk protect human infants from gastrointestinal bacteria? J Nutr 1997; 127: 980S–4S. 10.1093/jn/127.5.980S CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 11Parodi PW. Cows' milk fat components as potential anticarcinogenic agents. J Nutr 1997; 127: 1055–60. 10.1093/jn/127.6.1055 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 12Jensen RG. The lipids in human milk. Prog Lipid Res 1996; 35: 53–92. 10.1016/0163-7827(95)00010-0 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 13Gurr M. Biological properties of some cow's milk fat components. Lipid Tech 1997;May: 70–3. Google Scholar 14Hamosh M. Should infant formulas be supplemented with bioactive components and conditionally essential nutrients present in human milk? J Nutr 1997; 127: 971S–4S. 10.1093/jn/127.5.971S CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 15Decsi T, Koletzko B. Polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant nutrition. Acta Paediatr Suppl 1994; 83: 31–7. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13226.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 16Uauy R, Peirano P, Hoffman D, Mena P, Birch D, Birch E. Role of essential fatty acids in the function of the developing nervous system. Lipids 1996; 31: S167–S76. 10.1007/BF02637071 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 17Gibson RA, Makrides M. The role of long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) in neonatal nutrition. Acta Paediatr 1998; 87: 1017–22. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1998.tb01406.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 18Hamosh M, Salem N Jr. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Biol Neonate 1998; 74: 106–20. 10.1159/000014017 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 19Rioux FM, Innis SM. Oleic acid (18:1) in plasma, liver and brain myelin lipid of piglets fed from birth with formulas differing in 18:1 content. J Nutr 1992; 122: 1521–8. 10.1093/jn/122.7.1521 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 20Jensen RG, Newburg DS. Milk lipids: B. Bovine milk lipids. In: RG Jensen, ed. Handbook of milk composition. San Diego: Academic Press, 1995: 543–75. 10.1016/B978-012384430-9/50024-X Google Scholar 21Di Marzo V, Sepe N, De Petrocellis L, et al. Trick or treat from food endocannabinoids? Nature 1998; 396: 636–7. 10.1038/25267 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 22Di Marzo M, Sepe N, De Petrocellis L, et al. Endocannabinoid content of food: Levels and potential bioactivity (abstract). FASEB J 1999: A558. Google Scholar 23Auerbach MH, Chang PW, Coleman SL, O'Neil JJ, Philips JC. Salatrim reduced-calorie triacylglycerols. Lipid Technol 1997;(November): 137–9. Google Scholar 24Gresti J, Bugaut M, Maniongui C, Bezard J. Composition of molecular species of triacylglycerols in bovine milk fat. J Dairy Sci 1993; 76: 1850–69. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77518-9 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 25Cummings JH, MacFarlane GT. Role of intestinal bacteria in intestinal metabolism. Clin Nutr 1997; 16: 3–11. 10.1016/S0261-5614(97)80252-X PubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 26Sampugna J, Quinn JG, Pitas RE, Carpenter DL, Jensen RG. Digestion of butyrate glycerides by pancreatic lipase. Lipids 1967; 2: 397–402. 10.1007/BF02531853 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 27Bugaut M. Occurrence, absorption and metabolism of short chain fatty acids in the digestive tract of mammals. Comp Biochem Physiol 1987; 86: 439–72. CASGoogle Scholar 28Hayes JR, Pence DH, Scheinbach S, et al. Review of triacylglycerol digestion, absorption, and metabolism with respect to SALATRIM triacylglycerols. J Agric Food Chem 1994; 42: 474–83. 10.1021/jf00038a043 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 29DeMichele SJ, Karlstad MD. Short-chain triglycerides in clinical nutrition. In: JH Cummings, JL Rombeau, T Sakata, eds. Physiological and clinical aspects of short-chain fatty acids. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995: 537–58. Google Scholar 30Kabara JJ. Antimicrobial agents derived from fatty acids. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1984; 61: 397–403. 10.1007/BF02678802 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 31Petschow BW, Batema RP, Ford LL. Susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori to bactericidal properties of medium-chain monoglycerides and free fatty acids. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1996; 40: 302–6. 10.1128/AAC.40.2.302 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 32Wang L, Yang B, Parkin KL, Johnson EA. Inhibition of Listeria monocytogenes by monoacylglycerols synthesized from coconut oil and milk fat by lipase-catalyzed glycerolysis. J Agric Food Chem 1993; 41: 1000–5. 10.1021/jf00030a033 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 33Isaacs CE, Kashyap S, Heird WC, Thormar H. Antiviral and antibacterial lipids in human milk and infant formula feeds. Arch Dis Child 1990; 65: 861–4. 10.1136/adc.65.8.861 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 34Isaacs CE, Thormar H. The role of milk-derived antimicrobial lipids as antiviral and antibacterial agents. Adv Exp Med Biol 1991; 310: 159–65. 10.1007/978-1-4615-3838-7_19 CASPubMedGoogle Scholar 35Ha JK, Lindsay RC. Release of volatile branched-chain and other fatty acids from ruminant milk fats by various lipases. J Dairy Sci 1993; 76: 677–90. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(93)77391-9 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 36Cummings JH, Pomare EW, Branch WJ, Naylor CP, Macfarlane GT. Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood. Gut 1987; 28: 1221–7. 10.1136/gut.28.10.1221 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 37Raimondo S, Combe N, Le Pivert M, Entressangles B. Branched fatty acid type and its effect on triglyceride hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase and intestinal absorption. Oleagineux 1996; 3: 287–93. CASGoogle Scholar 38Doyle E. Scientific forum explores CLA knowledge. Int News Fats Oils Relat Mater 1998; 9: 69–72. Google Scholar 39Belury MA. Conjugated dienoic linoleate: A polyunsaturated fatty acid with unique chemoprotective properties. Nutr Rev 1995; 53: 83–9. 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1995.tb01525.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 40Kaylegian KE. Functional characteristics and nontraditional applications of milk lipid components in food and nonfood systems. J Dairy Sci 1995; 78: 2524–40. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(95)76883-7 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 41Lin H, Boylston TD, Chang MJ, Luedecke LO, Schultz TD. Survey of the conjugated linoleic acid contents of dairy products. J Dairy Sci 1995; 78: 2358–65. 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(95)76863-1 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 42Shantha NC, Ram LN, Oleary J, Hicks CL, Decker EA. Conjugated linoleic acid concentrations in dairy products as affected by processing and storage. J Food Sci 1995; 60: 695–7. 10.1111/j.1365-2621.1995.tb06208.x CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 43Haumann BF. Conjugated linoleic acid offers research promise. Int News Fats Oils Relat Mater 1996; 7: 152–9. Google Scholar 44McGuire MK, McGuire MA, Shultz TD, Boylston TD, Park YS, Harrison LY. Conjugated linoleic acid concentration of human milk and infant formulae (abstract). FASEB J 1996: A553. Google Scholar 45O'Keefe SF, Wiley V, Gaskins S. Geometrical isomers of essential fatty acids in liquid infant formulas. Food Res Int 1994; 27: 7–13. 10.1016/0963-9969(94)90172-4 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 46Ratnayake WM, Chardigny JM, Wolff RL, Bayard CC, Sébédio J, Martine L. Essential fatty acids and their trans geometrical isomers in powdered and liquid infant formulas sold in Canada. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 25: 400–7. 10.1097/00005176-199710000-00007 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 47Chardigny JM, Wolff RL, Mager E, et al. Fatty acid composition of French infant formulas with emphasis on the content and detailed profile of trans fatty acids. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1996; 73: 1595–601. 10.1007/BF02523531 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 48Sebedio JL, Grandgirard A, Prevost J. Linoleic acid isomers in heat treated sunflower oils. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1988; 65: 362–6. 10.1007/BF02663077 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 49Ackman RG, Hooper SN, Hooper DL. Linolenic acid artifact from the deodorisation of oil. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1974; 51: 42–9. 10.1007/BF00000011 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 50Bertoli C, Bellini A, Delvecchio A, Durand P, Gumy D, Stancanelli M. Formation of trans fatty acids during deodorization of low erucic acid rapeseed oil. In: KCR SS Koseoglu, RF Wilson, eds. Proceedings World Conference on Oilseed and Edible Oils Processing. Vol 2. Champaign, IL: AOCS Press, 1998. Google Scholar 51Chen Z-Y, Pelletier G, Hollywood R, Ratnayake WMN. Trans fatty isomers in Canadian human milk. Lipids 1995; 30: 15–21. 10.1007/BF02537037 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 52Koletzko B, Mrotzek M, Bremer HJ. Fatty acid composition of mature human milk in Germany. Am J Clin Nutr 1988; 47: 954–9. 10.1093/ajcn/47.6.954 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 53Koletzko B. Trans fatty acids may impair biosynthesis of long-chain polyunsaturates and growth in man. Acta Paediatr 1992; 81: 302–6. 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1992.tb12230.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 54Decsi T, Koletzko B. Do trans fatty acids impair linoleic acid metabolism in children? Anal Nutr Metab 1995; 39: 36–41. 10.1159/000177840 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 55Yanagi S, Yamashita M, Tsuyuki M, Morimoto J, Haga S, Imai S. Milk cream does not enhance 7,12-dimethylbenz(α)anthracene-induced mammary tumorigenesis. Cancer Lett 1992; 61: 141–5. 10.1016/0304-3835(92)90172-R CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 56Yanagi S, Yamashita M, Imai S. Sodium butyrate inhibits the enhancing effect of high fat diet on mammary tumorigenesis. Oncology 1993; 50: 201–4. 10.1159/000227178 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 57Cope RB, Bosnic M, Boehm Wilcox C, Mohr D, Reeve VE. Dietary butter protects against ultraviolet radiation-induced suppression of contact hypersensitivity in Skh:HR-1 hairless mice. J Nutr 1996; 126: 681–92. 10.1093/jn/126.3.681 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 58Kim M, Chang WCL, Frölich W, Chapkin RS, Lupton JR. Butter fat may protect against colon carcinogenesis through decreased cell proliferation mediated by changes in prostaglandin production (abstract). FASEB J 1996; A495. Google Scholar 59Knekt P, Jarvinen R, Seppanen R, Pukkala E, Aroma A. Intake of dairy products and the risk of breast cancer. Br J Cancer 1996; 73: 687–91. 10.1038/bjc.1996.119 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 60Christie WW, Clapperton JL. Structures of the triglycerides of cows' milk, fortified milks (including infant formula) and human milk. J Soc Dairy Tech 1982; 35: 22–4. 10.1111/j.1471-0307.1982.tb02259.x CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 61Decker EA. The role of stereospecific saturated fatty acid positions on lipid nutrition. Nutr Rev 1996; 54: 108–10. 10.1111/j.1753-4887.1996.tb03884.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 62Mattson FH, Lutton ES. The specific distribution of fatty acids in the glycerides of animal and vegetable fat. J Biol Chem 1958; 233: 860–71. 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)64670-8 Web of Science®Google Scholar 63Tomarelli RM, Meyer BJ, Weaber JR, Bernhart FW. Effect of positional distribution on the absorption of the fatty acids of human milk and infant formulas. J Nutr 1968; 95: 583–90. 10.1093/jn/95.4.583 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 64Lien EL, Yuhas RJ, Boyle FG, Tomarelli RM. Corandomization of fats improves absorption in rats. J Nutr 1993; 123: 1859–67. 10.1093/jn/123.11.1859 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 65Zock PL, de Vries JH, de Fouw NJ, Katan MB. Positional distribution of fatty acids in dietary triglycerides: Effects on fasting blood lipoprotein concentrations in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 61: 48–55. 10.1093/ajcn/61.1.48 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 66Innis SM, Dyer R, Nelson CM. Evidence that palmitic acid is absorbed as sn-2 monoacylglycerol from human milk by breast-fed infants. Lipids 1994; 29: 541–5. 10.1007/BF02536625 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 67Bruhl L, Shulte E, Their HP. Zusammensetzung und aufbau der Triglyceride von Muttermilch und einiger Rohstoffe fur Sauglingsnahrung. Fat Sci Technol 1994; 4: 147–54. Google Scholar 68Bell SJ, Bradley D, Forse RA, Bistrian BR. The new dietary fats in health and disease. J Am Diet Assoc 1997; 97: 280–6. 10.1016/S0002-8223(97)00072-2 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 69Carnielli VP, Luijendijk IHT, van Goudoever JB, et al. Feeding premature newborn infants palmitic acid in amounts and stereoisomeric position similar to that of human milk: Effects on fat and mineral balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 61: 1037–42. 10.1093/ajcn/61.5.1037 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 70Myher JJ, Kuksis A, Geher K, Park PW, Diersen-Schade DA. Stereospecific analysis of triacylglycerols rich in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids 1996; 31: 207–15. 10.1007/BF02522622 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 71Kavanagh AR. A breakthrough in infant formula fats. Oleagineux Corps Gras Lipids 1997; 4: 165–8. CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 72Verkade HJ, Hoving EB, Muskiet FA, et al. Fat absorption in neonates: Comparison of long-chain-fatty-acid and triglyceride compositions of formula, feces, and blood. Am J Clin Nutr 1991; 53: 643–51. 10.1093/ajcn/53.3.643 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 73Lien EL, Boyle FG, Yuhas R, Tomarelli RM, Quinlan P. The effect of triglyceride positional distribution on fatty acid absorption in rats. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 25: 167–74. 10.1097/00005176-199708000-00007 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 74Filer LJ, Mattson FH, Fomon SJ. Triglyceride configuration and fat absorption by the human infant. J Nutr 1969; 99: 293–8. 10.1093/jn/99.3.293 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 75Carnielli VP, Luijendijk IH, Van Goudoever JB, et al. Structural position and amount of palmitic acid in infant formulas: Effects on fat, fatty acid, and mineral balance. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1996; 23: 553–60. 10.1097/00005176-199612000-00007 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 76Nelson SE, Rogers RR, Frantz JA, Ziegler EE. Palm olein in infant formula: Absorption of fat and minerals by normal infants. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 64: 291–6. 10.1093/ajcn/64.3.291 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 77Carnielli VP, Verlato G, Pederzini F, et al. Intestinal absorption of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in preterm infants fed breast milk or formula. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 67: 97–103. 10.1093/ajcn/67.1.97 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 78Lucas A, Quinlan P, Abrams S, Ryan S, Meah S, Lucas PJ. Randomised controlled trial of a synthetic triglyceride milk formula for preterm infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1997; 77: F178–84. 10.1136/fn.77.3.F178 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 79Innis SM, Dyer R. Dietary triacylglycerols with palmitic acid (16:0) in the 2-position increase 16:0 in the 2-position of plasma and chylomicron triacylglycerols, but reduce phospholipid arachidonic and docosahexaenoic acids, and alter cholesteryl ester metabolism in formula-fed piglets. J Nutr 1997; 127: 1311–9. 10.1093/jn/127.7.1311 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 80Nelson SE, Frantz JA, Ziegler EE. Absorption of fat and calcium by infants fed a milk-based formula containing palm olein. J Am Coll Nutr 1998; 17: 327–32. 10.1080/07315724.1998.10718770 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 81Williams ML, Rose CS, Morrow Gd, Sloan SE, Barness LA. Calcium and fat absorption in neonatal period. Am J Clin Nutr 1970; 23: 1322–30. 10.1093/ajcn/23.10.1322 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 82Quinlan PT, Lockton S, Irwin J, Lucas AL. The relationship between stool hardness and stool composition in breast-and formula-fed infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1995; 20: 81–90. 10.1002/j.1536-4801.1995.tb11493.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 83Kritchevsky D, Tepper SA, Kuksis A, Eghtedary K, Klurfeld DM. Cholesterol vehicle in experimental atherosclerosis: 21. Native and randomized lard and tallow. J Nutr Biochem 1998; 9: 582–5. 10.1016/S0955-2863(98)00053-9 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 84Kritchevsky D, Tepper SA, Kuksis A. Effects of palm oil, randomized palm oil and red palm oil on experimental atherosclerosis (abstract). FASEB J 1999; 13: A213. PubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 85Grande F, Anderson JT, Keys A. Comparison of effects of palmitic and stearic acids in the diet on serum cholesterol in man. Am J Clin Nutr 1970; 23: 1184–93. 10.1093/ajcn/23.9.1184 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 86Nestel PJ, Noakes M, Belling GB, McArthur R, Clifton PM. Effect on plasma lipids of interesterifying a mix of edible oils. Am J Clin Nutr 1995; 62: 950–5. 10.1093/ajcn/62.5.950 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 87Innis SM, Quinlan P, Diersen-Schade D. Saturated fatty acid chain length and positional distribution in infant formula: Effects on growth and plasma lipids and ketones in piglets. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 382–90. 10.1093/ajcn/57.3.382 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 88Merrill AH Jr Schmelz EM, Wang E, Schroeder JJ, Dillehay DL, Riley RT. Role of dietary sphingolipids and inhibitors of sphingolipid metabolism in cancer and other diseases. J Nutr 1995; 125: 1677s–82s. CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 89Sprong C, Hulstein M, Van-der-Meer R. Phospholipid-rich butter milk decreases the gastrointestinal survival and translocation of listeria in rats (abstract). Gastroenterology 1998; 114: A1090. 10.1016/S0016-5085(98)84431-4 Web of Science®Google Scholar 90Carlson SE, Montalto MB, Ponder DL, Werkman SH, Korones SB. Lower incidence of necrotizing enterocolitis in infants fed a preterm formula with egg phospholipids. Pediatr Res 1998; 44: 491–8. 10.1203/00006450-199810000-00005 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 91Dial EJ, Lichtenberger LM. A role for milk phospholipids in protection against gastric acid: Studies in adult and suckling rats. Gastroenterology 1984; 87: 379–85. 10.1016/0016-5085(84)90716-9 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 92Hallgren B, Niklasson A, Ställberg G, Thorin H. On the occurrence of 1-O-alkylglycerols and 1-O-(2-methoxyalkyl)glycerols in human colostrum, human milk, cow's milk, sheep's milk, human red bone marrow, red cells, blood plasma and a uterine carcinoma. Acta Chem Scand 1974; 28B: 1029–34. 10.3891/acta.chem.scand.28b-1029 Google Scholar 93Malmsten M, Bergenstahl B, Nyberg L, Odham G. Sphingomyelin from milk-characterization of liquid crystalline, liposome and emulsion properties. J Am Oil Chem Soc 1994; 71: 1021–6. 10.1007/BF02542273 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 94Karlsson KA, Arnoldsson KC, Westerdahl G, Westerdahl G, Odham G. Common molecular species of glucosyl ceramides, lactosyl ceramides and sphingomyelins in bovine milk determined by high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Milchwissenschaft 1997; 52: 554–8. CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 95Dillehay DL, Webb SK, Schmelz EM, Merrill AH Jr. Dietary sphingomyelin inhibits 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon cancer in CF1 mice. J Nutr 1994; 124: 615–20. 10.1093/jn/124.5.615 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 96Schmelz EM, Dillehay DL, Webb SK, Reiter A, Adams J, Merrill AH Jr. Sphingomyelin consumption suppresses aberrant colonic crypt foci and increases the proportion of adenomas versus adenocarcinomas in CF1 mice treated with 1,2-dimethylhydrazine: Implications for dietary sphingolipids and colon carcinogenesis. Cancer Res 1996; 56: 4936–41. CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 97Schmelz EM, Bushnev AS, Dillehay DL, Liotta DC, Merrill AH Jr. Suppression of aberrant colonic crypt foci by synthetic sphingomyelins with saturated or unsaturated sphingoid base backbones. Nutr Cancer 1997; 28: 81–5. 10.1080/01635589709514556 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 98Vesper H, Schmelz E-M, Nikolova-Karakashian MN, Dillehay DL, Lynch DV, Merrill AH, Jr. Sphingolipids in food and the emerging importance of sphingolipids to nutrition. J Nutr 1999; 129: 1239–50. 10.1093/jn/129.7.1239 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 99Merrill AH Jr Schmelz EM, Wang E, et al. Importance of sphingolipids and inhibitors of sphingolipid metabolism as components of animal diets. J Nutr 1997; 127: 830S–3S. 10.1093/jn/127.5.830S CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 100Schmelz EM, Crall KJ, Larocque R, Dillehay DL, Merrill AH, Jr. Uptake and metabolism of sphingolipids in isolated intestinal loops of mice. J Nutr 1994; 124: 702–12. 10.1093/jn/124.5.702 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 101Nyberg L, Nilsson A, Lundgren P, Duan R-D. Localization and capacity of sphingomyelin digestion in the rat intestinal tract. J Nutr Biochem 1997; 8: 112–8. 10.1016/S0955-2863(97)00010-7 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 102Berger A, Rosenthal D, Spiegel S. Sphingosylphosphorylcholine, a novel signaling molecule which accumulates in Niemann-pick disease type A, stimulates DNA-binding activity of AP-1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92: 5885–9. 10.1073/pnas.92.13.5885 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 103Berger A, Cultaro CM, Segal S, Spiegel S. The potent lipid mitogen sphingosylphosphocholine activates the DNA binding activity of upstream stimulating factor (USF), a basic helix-loop-helix-zipper protein. Biochim Biophys Acta 1998; 1390: 225–36. 10.1016/S0005-2760(97)00180-X CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 104Ito M, Kurita T, Kita K. A novel enzyme that cleaves the N-acyl linkage of ceramides in various glycosphingolipids as well as sphingomyelin to produce their lyso forms. J Biol Chem 1995; 270: 24370–4. 10.1074/jbc.270.41.24370 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 105Rueda R, Gil A. Role of gangliosides in infant nutrition. In: Y-S Huang, AJ Sinclair, eds. Lipids in infant nutrition. Champaign, IL.: AOCS Press, 1998: 213–34. Web of Science®Google Scholar 106Idota T, Kawakami H. Inhibitory effects of milk gangliosides on the adhesion of Escherichia coli to human intestinal carcinoma cells. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1995; 59: 69–72. 10.1271/bbb.59.69 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 107Slomiany BL, Piotrowski J, Samanta A, Van Horn K, Murty VLN, Slomiany A. Campylobacter pylori colonization factor shows specificity for lactosylceramide sulfite and GM3 ganglioside. Biochem Int 1989; 19: 929–36. CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 108Kimurakuroda J, Nagashima K, Yasui K. Inhibitory effects of HIV-1 GP120 on myelin formation. Perspect Drug Deliv Design 1996; 5: 17–29. 10.1007/BF02173998 CASGoogle Scholar 109Rueda R, Sabatel JL, Maldonado J, Molina-Font JA, Gil A. Addition of gangliosides to an adapted milk formula modifies levels of fecal Escherichia coli in preterm newborn infants. J Pediatr 1998; 133: 90–4. 10.1016/S0022-3476(98)70184-2 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 110Choline now recognized as an essential nutrient in the USA. Nutraceuticals Int 1998;(6): 20. Google Scholar 111Cheng W-L, Holmes-Mcnary MQ, Mar MH, Lien EL, Zeisel SH. Bioavailability of choline and choline esters from milk in rat pops. J Nutr Biochem 1996; 7: 457–64. 10.1016/0955-2863(96)00079-4 CASWeb of Science®Google Scholar 112Holmes-Mcnary MQ, Cheng WL, Mar MH, Fussell S, Zeisel SH. Choline and choline esters in human and rat milk and in infant formulas. Am J Clin Nutr 1996; 64: 572–6. 10.1093/ajcn/64.4.572 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 113Zeisel SH. Choline: Essential for brain development and function. Adv Pediatr 1997; 44: 263–95. 10.1016/S0065-3101(24)00054-9 CASPubMedGoogle Scholar 114Thies F, Delachambre MC, Bentejac M, Lagarde M, Lecerf J. Unsaturated fatty acids esterified in 2-acyl-l-lysophosphatidylcholine bound to albumin are more efficiently taken up by the young rat brain than the unesterified form. J Neurochem 1992; 59: 1110–6. 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1992.tb08353.x CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 115Pete MJ, Exton JH. Purification of a lysophospholipase from bovine brain that selectively deacylates arachidonyl-substituted lysophosphatidylcholine. J Biol Chem 1996; 271: 18114–21. 10.1074/jbc.271.30.18114 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Google Scholar 116Brossard N, Croset M, Normand S, et al. Human plasma albumin transports [13C]docosahexaenoic acid in two lipid forms to blood cells. J Lipid Res 1997; 38: 1571–82. 10.1016/S0022-2275(20)37175-3 CASPubMedWeb of Science®Googl

Background Muscle triglycerides are important as a source of energy and in relation to metabolic sensitivity. However, the classic biopsy method does not distinguish intra- from extracellular fat, and their regulation by exercise and diet is largely unknown. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is available to assess the intramyocellular lipid (IMCL) pool non-invasively in humans. Aim of the study The aim of this work was to use sequential MRS measurements of IMCL and glycogen to explore the role of three levels of dietary fat on the replenishment of these energy stores after exercise. Methods Following 2 h of exercise, two subjects (S1, S2) were fed one of three diets (15 %, 40 % or 70 % fat energy), each on a separate occasion. IMCL and glycogen were measured by MRS in the tibialis anterior muscle before, after exercise, and at 10 and at 32 h of recovery. Results Initial IMCL concentration (mmol . kg(-1) : 3.0 in S1 and 1.8 in S2) was reduced to 70 % after exercise. The rate of replenishment was minimal with the low-fat (mmol . kg(-1) . 24 h(-1) : 0.7 and 0.0) and much higher with both higher fat diets (mmol . kg(-1) . 24 h(-1) : 3.1 and 3.2 in S1, 0.7 and 0.9 in S2). Glycogen and IMCL replenishments were inversely correlated. Conclusions IMCL and glycogen can vary acutely in response to diet after exercise. Studies are needed to determine if such variations occur within the range of ordinary diets and to clarify the functional significance of IMCL in differently active individuals.