Exobasidium fungi are plant pathogens that primarily infect plants in the Ericaceae family, including blueberries and azaleas. Their infections cause plant cells to proliferate (hyperplasia) and expand (hypertrophy). The fungi then use the increased surface area to produce spores. These changes manifest as symptoms on the host plant, varying by species of Exobasidium. The range of symptoms includes leaf and fruit spots, blisters, shoot proliferation (witches' broom), and galls. Infected plant tissues can also become swollen and distorted, as well as chlorotic (yellow) or discolored (reddish to pink). As this infected tissue matures, the surface becomes white and powdery from fungal spore production. Exobasidium fungi tend to cause symptoms on the plant during ideal weather conditions but can likely survive on the leaf surface or other available substrates year-round. Disease management includes chemical applications and cultural practices before the spores have the chance to mature.

The dispersal of ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungi is typically characterized by an ecological dichotomy in which aboveground (epigeous) mushrooms disperse via wind and belowground (hypogeous) truffles disperse via animal-mediated movement. To assess whether hypogeous EM fungi may be dispersed by wind more often than generally recognized, we used high-throughput sequencing of paired spore trap and soil samples at eight sites across the United States. Within the spore trap samples, hypogeous EM taxa represented 17.2 ± 1.62

The most famous chemicals produced by mushrooms are the psychedelic compound psilocybin from "magic mushrooms" and amatoxins from deadly poisonous mushrooms. These compounds are known to occur in multiple phylogenetically disjunct fungal lineages but have never been shown to co-occur within a single species. Here we show that the "dark magic mushroom" Galerina indica produces both psilocybin and amatoxins. Mass spectrometry revealed psilocybin and amatoxins in mushroom tissues, and genomic analyses identified corresponding biosynthetic genes. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that G. indica acquired psilocybin biosynthesis via horizontal gene transfer after amatoxin biosynthesis was already established, and that psilocybin biosynthesis was acquired twice independently within Galerina. Intriguingly, acquisition of psilocybin biosynthesis in G. indica may have coincided with reduced amatoxin potency. These findings reveal how horizontal gene transfer can combine powerful bioactive systems in a single species, potentially altering the ecological roles of both compound classes and the evolutionary fitness of the species.

Understanding how aerial fungal diversity varies across space, habitat, and disturbance is key to linking local-scale sporocarp (fruiting body) reproduction with continental-scale biogeography. In this study, we combined passive spore trap metabarcoding with macrofungal sporocarp records from 31 plots in eight sites across North America to quantify how site, habitat, and fire history shape aerial macrofungal communities. From 823 samples, we recovered 7572 OTUs, nearly half belonging to macrofungi. Macrofungal aerial DNA abundance and OTU richness varied strongly among sites and increased significantly with both temperature and precipitation. Across sites, forest habitats had significantly greater macrofungal aerial DNA abundance than grassland habitats, while conifer forests supported significantly higher OTU richness than oak forests or grasslands. Burn history, likely due to lags in the sampling time following fire, did not significantly impact macrofungal aerial DNA abundance and OTU richness and also had limited effects on community composition. Aerial macrofungal community similarity declined with geographic distance, with geography explaining the most variation (16%). Functional guild composition varied across habitats, shifting from higher ectomycorrhizal prevalence in forest habitats to higher soil saprotroph prevalence in grassland habitats, although wood saprotrophs were the most abundant guild across all habitats. Integration with iNaturalist sporocarp records indicated a mean effective spore trap input range of ~3 km, consistent with strong local dispersal limitation. Together, these findings demonstrate that aerial macrofungal assemblages exhibit pronounced continental-scale structure yet remain locally heterogeneous, shaped primarily by environmental filtering, functional guild association, and limited dispersal.

Truffle fungi, such as Tuber melanosporum and T. aestivum, are prized luxury food products that have been historically cultivated in Mediterranean regions of Europe. Recent advances in truffle cultivation have led to the establishment of productive truffle orchards in North America, South America, China, and Australia. Despite these advances, a consistent issue has been the introduction and accidental cultivation of non-target truffle species. Non-target truffle species (e.g., T. indicum and T. brumale) often morphologically resemble target species (e.g., T. melanosporum) and may unintentionally be included as an inoculum and introduced to seedlings. Detecting inoculum and seedling contamination is difficult and often relies on inconsistent morphological analyses or labor-intensive and time-consuming PCR-based methods. Furthermore, quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays have only been developed for T. melanosporum and T. aestivum, leaving truffle growers without rapid tools to detect important contaminants such as T. brumale. Here, we develop a rapid loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay to detect three globally cultivated Tuber species (T. melanosporum, T. borchii, and T. aestivum) and the most common introduced contaminant species (T. brumale). The assays presented here are sensitive to at least 10-3 ng of DNA and are species-specific. These assays should be of special interest to both truffle orchard owners and truffle testing facilities given the low time commitment, high sensitivity, high specificity, and cost comparable to PCR and qPCR-based approaches. IMPORTANCE:Despite the global success of truffle cultivation, the accidental cultivation of undesirable truffle species has been a persistent issue. To address this issue, we developed four loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for the rapid detection of Tuber aestivum, T. borchii, T. brumale, and T. melanosporum from ectomycorrhizal root tips and truffle fruiting bodies. These assays are alternatives to the widely used T. aestivum and T. melanosporum qPCR assays and are the first rapid detection assays for T. borchii and T. brumale.

Thelephora is a genus of ectomycorrhizal fungi with a global distribution. Recent taxonomic efforts have revealed new species and species complexes, often distinguished by subtle morphological differences. Here, we describe Thelephora renispora, a new species resembling T. versatilis and T. pseudoversatilis, and support its recognition as a distinct taxon based on morphological traits, phylogenetic analyses of nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer region ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (ITS barcode) and D1-D2 domains of nuc 28S rDNA (28S), and statistical comparisons of its micromophology against closely related allies. New distribution records for T. pseudoversatilis are also provided. Additionally, we present phylogenetic informativeness analyses to assess the utility of ITS, 28S, and other markers previously used for the order Thelephorales. Our results identify the DNA-directed RNA polymerase II second-largest subunit (RPB2) as the most informative locus for delimiting species-level relationships in the Thelephorales order, whereas ITS contributes to solving interspecific relations within the Thelephora-Tomentella clade.

Starting in 2019 in northern and central Florida, a thread blight caused by a previously undescribed fungus was observed with increasing frequency, affecting both hardwood and conifer hosts with a higher prevalence in wet, shaded environments. This emerging disease, called relampago blight, is caused by the fungus Parvodontia relampaga and is characterized by its distinct white, lightning-shaped rhizomorphs (fungal cords) that grow on the stems and branches of affected host plants. When the fungus fully develops, it can also grow on the undersides of plant leaves, causing dieback of leaves and small branches. This fungus has been found on a wide array of host plants and detected in 31 counties throughout Florida.

Fungal herbarium specimens are an enormous and largely untapped source of sequence data, but recovering usable DNA from them is difficult. Dried basidiomes accumulate damage over decades of storage: DNA becomes highly fragmented, endogenous template is present in low copy numbers, and specimens acquire exogenous DNA (e.g. contamination) from handling, mounting, and shared storage with other specimens. These problems are compounded in collections held in humid or tropical conditions, which have historically been among the least likely to yield amplifiable DNA. This protocol adapts the "Dried Samples" section (pages 9-11) of the E.Z.N.A.® HP Plant & Fungal DNA Kit manual (Omega Bio-tek) for this material. The core chemistry of the kit is unchanged; the modifications concern how the tissue is prepared, how thoroughly it is lysed, and how the eluate is formulated for downstream use. The protocol also emphasizes contamination control at every step, on the premise that the endogenous signal in this material is often weak enough to be overwhelmed by small amounts of introduced DNA. We have used this protocol to recover DNA for PCR amplification and sequencing of barcode regions from fungal specimens held at multiple herbaria, including Kew (K), the Farlow Herbarium (FH), the New York Botanical Garden (NY), the University of Florida (FLAS), the University of Michigan (MICH), the Field Museum (F), and the University of Tennessee (TENN), among others. Successful extractions include specimens collected as early as 1851 and also specimens where DNA extraction and PCR were previously unsuccessful. (We have also had much higher success when using short-amplicon PCR primer sets that amplify DNA from particular fungal taxonomic groups, rather than using primers that amplify all fungal DNA. A companion protocol covering PCR conditions and short-amplicon ITS primers optimized for Agaricomycetes is in preparation). Modifications from the kit manual: Reduced tissue input (3–10 mg) in place of the manual's 10–50 mg Bead milling with ceramic beads with microscopy to ensure spore lysis. This step requires access to a microscope and some instrument-specific calibration. 2-mercaptoethanol and RNase A are used as standard (rather than as optional) and we pre-mix these reagents into a bulk working solution to reduce tube openings Extended low-temperature lysis (55 °C for 6 h) before the freeze/thaw, followed by 55 °C for 1 h and 65 °C for 30 min after thawing, in place of the manual's single 65 °C / 30 min incubation. A single overnight freeze/thaw cycle inserted mid-lysis Recovery of the full available aqueous phase (typically ~450 µL) rather than a fixed 300 µL, with proportionalscaling of CXD Buffer and ethanol and loading of the column in two passes Extended column drying (30 min–1.5h in a flow hood) to eliminate ethanol carryover Elution in sterile molecular-grade water rather than Elution Buffer, in reduced volumes (90 µL + 40 µL), to avoid Tris/EDTA carryover into high-template PCR reactions.

The genus Leotia (Leotiaceae) is globally distributed with approximately 45 named species and several subspecies, varieties and forms. Persoon first proposed Leotia in 1794. Most of the taxonomic work has been done in the last 100 years with the most recent species added in 1982 by Otani. Here we describe L. chiricana, a new species associated with tropical monodominant forests of Oreomunnea mexicana (Fagales, Juglandaceae) in Panama and Trigonobalanus excelsa (Fagales, Fagaceae) in Colombia. This new species is easily recognized by its distinctive vivid dark greenish blue color as compared to other species in the genus. The structure of the apothecia also differs in having only one gelatinous layer instead of two in the stipe. Phylogenetic analyses using ITS ribosomal DNA and a variable region of the RNA polymerase II (RPB2) gene strongly support a monophyletic L. chiricana clade that is sister to L. lubrica group I sensu Zhong and Pfister. Our field data showed that L. chiricana was more abundant in habitats with soils of high nitrogen availability. Illumina sequence data (ITS2) and stable isotope analysis suggest that this species forms mycorrhizal associations with O. mexicana. The discovery of this Leotia species from Panama and Colombia contributes to the knowledge of the understudied and diverse communities of ectomycorrhizal fungi within the Neotropics.

Parvodontia relampaga is a recently described phytopathogenic fungus from Florida, USA that causes relampago blight (RB), a disease characterized by the formation of white rhizomorphs on branches and mycelial fans on leaves followed by leaf necrosis and senescence (Paez et al. 2024). P. relampaga can be distinguished from other thread-blight fungi because it produces gloeocystidia (yellow, obclavate to irregular thick-walled cells). To date P. relampaga has been documented on 27 host species. Since the description of P. relampaga, there have been several observations of white rhizomorphs and blight symptoms on the endangered conifer species, Torreya taxifolia, on private property near Torreya State Park in Liberty County, Florida. At the time of these reports, we were unable to access the property and collect diseased plants. To confirm that P. relampaga can cause RB on T. taxifolia, we inoculated eight T. taxifolia plants with 15 mm mycelial plugs of a P. relampaga paratype (NRRL 64415). Two T. taxifolia plants were inoculated with sterile plugs as controls. The plants were kept in a 22° C greenhouse with a 40% shade cloth and were watered with sprinklers for 10 minutes every 12 hours. The experiment was conducted twice. After 60 days, we observed leaf senescence and white rhizomorphs on stems, branches, and leaves of seven plants out of 16 inoculated plants. No symptoms or rhizomorphs appeared on the negative controls. We isolated rhizomorphs on potato dextrose agar (PDA) and confirmed their identity by sequencing the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region using primers ITS1F-ITS4 (Gardes and Bruns 1993). The sequence (PX765047) was 99% similar to NRRL 64415 based on BLAST analysis. In September 2025, we obtained access to the private property and collected T. taxifolia needles with white rhizomorphs and leaf necrosis. We cultured the fungus on PDA and confirmed the identity by sequencing ITS, the ribosomal large subunit (LSU) with LR0R-LR5F (Hopple and Vilgalys 1994; Tedersoo et al. 2008), and the translation elongation factor-1 alpha (tef1) with EF1-983F-EF1-1567R (Rehner and Buckley 2005). The isolate showed ≥ 99% similarity to P. relampaga at each locus (PX629132, PX625962, PX659862). We also observed RB symptoms and signs on eight additional hosts across Florida: Camphora officinarum, Cartrema americanum, Citrus reticulata, Damburneya coriacea, Gordonia lasianthus, Illicium floridanum, Ligustrum lucidum, and Sabal palmetto. We confirmed the identity of the fungi on all hosts with DNA sequencing (PX625961, PX629131, PX625963–PX625970, PX629133, PX629135–PX629140, PX659859– PX659861, PX659863, PX659864); all sequences showed ≥ 99% similarity to P. relampaga. We were unable to sequence tef1 for some collections but the fungal morphology and both ITS and LSU sequences were consistent with P. relampaga. Due to time constraints and limited access to host plants, we only fulfilled Koch’s Postulates for Torreya taxifolia. Nonetheless, it is important to note that RB occurs on a wide array of plant species. Although it is unlikely that RB is primarily responsible for the death of individual T. taxifolia trees (which is often due to cankers caused by Fusarium torreyae (Smith et al. 2011)), P. relampaga is likely contributing to the ongoing decline of T. taxifolia. Our work, in combination with the original report by Paez et al. (2024) brings the total number of known RB hosts to 36 species across 24 families.

Bioluminescent fungi emit light through chemical luminescence of fungal tissues. More than 100 species of bioluminescent fungi have been described in five distinct groups of Agaricales: Omphalotus, Armillaria, the Lucentipes lineage within Marasmiineae, the Eoscyphella lineage, and the mycenoid lineage. The mycenoid lineage includes the largest number of described bioluminescent taxa. Recent efforts to document and describe fungal biodiversity in Chile documented several collections of a bioluminescent Mycena species found exclusively on the dead rachises of Parablechnum chilense, a fern species endemic to temperate forests of Chile and Argentina. This species is related to Mycena tenerrima (= M. adscendens) from the Northern Hemisphere, but is both morphologically and phylogenetically distinct. Here, we describe this species as Mycena luxaustralis sp. nov., including morphological descriptions and analysis of ITS and 28S sequences.

This article is a Commentary on Barbi et al. (2025), 247: 295–308.

While much of the literature focuses on plant and prokaryote tolerance towards abiotic stresses, environmental resistance by fungi remains understudied. Many fungi have traits that help them to tolerate extreme environmental perturbations. Bird's nest fungi produce 'peridioles' which consist of basidiospores, basidia, hyphae, and melanized walls, but their tolerance towards environmental stresses is currently unknown. We exposed the peridioles of three distantly related bird's nest fungi species (Cyathus poepigii, Crucibulum parvulum, and Nidularia pulvinata) to extremely high temperatures, extremely low temperatures, and prolonged ultraviolet (UV-C) radiation. The viability of bird's nest fungi peridioles declined after high heat treatments although all three species showed tolerance up to about 40 degrees C. In contrast, peridioles were unaffected by freezing or direct ultraviolet radiation. Although bird's nest fungi are not typically found under extreme conditions, three distantly related species germinated well following exposure to extreme environments for either 6 or 24 h. More research is needed to clarify whether other peridiole-producing fungi share this wide tolerance of harsh environmental conditions.

Oyster mushrooms (species in the genus Pleurotus) are common edible fungi that grow year-round in Florida. They can often be found growing from wood in shelf-like clusters in both urban and natural environments. They are also one of the most popular genera of cultivated mushrooms, and several species are commonly sold in grocery stores. Oyster mushrooms belong to the genus Pleurotus, and all known species are edible. However, some similar-looking mushrooms can be poisonous, so always use extreme caution when consuming mushrooms that were not cultivated for the purpose of human consumption. This publication is intended to introduce the general public to the oyster mushrooms of Florida.

Species of Thelephora Ehrh. ex Willd. (Thelephorales, Basidiomycota) are known from all continents where ectomycorrhizal (ECM) host plants occur. Although often poorly represented in sporocarp surveys due to the cryptic basidiomata of the resupinate species, belowground sequencing studies in both temperate and tropical systems have shown that thelephoroid fungi are often the dominant ECM group. In the South American lowland tropics, thelephoroid fungi remain poorly known, and very few species have been described from the region. Long-term surveys in Guyana have revealed a wide diversity of ECM fungal species in association with the ECM trees Dicymbe corymbosa (Fabaceae subfam. Detarioideae) and Aldina insignis (Benth.) Endl. (Fabaceae subfam. Papilionoideae). Thelephoroid species form a prominent component of this ECM fungal assemblage, as evidenced by their dominance in both adult tree and seedling root tip surveys and frequent occurrence as fertile basidiomata on a variety of substrata. Here we describe four new thelephoroid species from Guyana that are among the most frequently collected as basidiomata: Thelephora ascendens, Thelephora compacta, Thelephora singularis, and Thelephora ventricobasidia. Three of these species have resupinate basidiomata and would have formerly been assigned to the genus Tomentella Pers. ex Pat. Morphological descriptions, habit, habitat, and known distribution are provided for each new species. Sequence data for the barcode internal transcribed spacer (ITS) locus is provided for types and most other collections of the new species, and a molecular phylogenetic analysis across the Thelephoraceae corroborates their status as novel taxa.

Primary dispersers of seeds and spores play critical roles in structuring the distributions of species, yet the role of predators as secondary dispersers remains largely unknown. This is especially true of mycorrhizal fungi, which often rely on small mammals to consume and disperse spores. We investigated how predator size, diet, and movement influence secondary spore dispersal in a terrestrial carnivore community by quantifying spore loads in scats (dispersal quantity) and integrating movement rates with gut passage time to determine dispersal distance (dispersal quality). Spores in carnivore scats increased with consumption of small mammals and transport of spores closely tracked home range movements. Larger carnivores deposited fewer spores but moved them farther from their source, creating a continuum between the quantity and quality of dispersal effectiveness. Our findings highlight the importance of carnivores as long-distance dispersers of mycorrhizal fungi and reveal how trophic interactions contribute to ecosystem functioning through secondary dispersal.

Pinus densa, an endemic and keystone tree in Florida's endangered pine rocklands ecosystem, faces increasing threats from sea level rise and salt intrusion. Ectomycorrhizal (ECM) fungi are critical for pine recruitment and survival, yet their diversity and response to salinity in this ecosystem have been unstudied. We used metabarcoding to survey the naturally occurring ECM fungi on the roots of mature Pinus densa at eight field sites with varying elevations, soil salinities, habitat patch sizes and distances from the ocean, followed by a manipulative greenhouse experiment to assess potential impacts of rising salinity, with four salinity levels on P. densa seedlings in soils that spanned a salinity gradient to evaluate survival and shifts in ECM communities. Results show that salinity stress threatens both P. densa and its ECM symbionts, with ECM fungal richness positively correlated with elevation and negatively correlated with salinity. Habitat patch size, distance from the ocean and soil pH showed no significant effect on richness, and pH was less predictive of community structure. In seedlings, higher salinity was associated with greater mortality and shifts in ECM community composition favouring Rhizopogon species and Pezizales taxa. These findings underscore the susceptibility of ECM fungi to increased salinity, which may disrupt mutualisms critical for coastal resilience. Understanding how salinity affects mutualistic fungi can inform predictions on the vulnerability of other coastal ecosystems to climate change and sea level rise.

Silvopasture is increasingly recognized as a nature-based solution to climate change. However, few studies have quantified the total carbon storage potential of silvopasture in humid continental climates, complicating efforts to understand climate mitigation potential. In this study, we compared the carbon stocks of silvopastures established by afforestation of trees into pastures (silvopasture) with pasture that remained without trees (treeless pasture) on five farms in the Northeastern United States. Total carbon content was measured in the woody, herbaceous, and soil pools for silvopastures and treeless pastures. Results indicate that silvopastures stored 43% more total carbon (136.42 Mg C ha− 1) than treeless pastures (95.47 Mg C ha− 1), with tree carbon in silvopastures being the driving factor. No significant difference in soil carbon stocks were found between systems across all five study farms. Total carbon content of forages was generally lower in silvopastures (7.24 Mg C ha− 1) when compared to treeless pasture (7.84 Mg C ha− 1). These findings quantify the additionality of silvopasture as a nature-based carbon storage practice when trees are planted into pasture.

Global fungal diversity is estimated at about 6.2 million species, but only 150 000 are currently described. Molecular studies reveal that this diversity is often underestimated, especially in less-studied regions. Phaeoclavulina, a genus of ramarioid fungi, has a wide distribution in areas with temperate and tropical climates. However, in southern South America, research on Phaeoclavulina species has been scarce, with only a few studies conducted in Argentina covering the morphology of a few species. This research aims to analyze Phaeoclavulina species in Argentina, exploring their morphology, ecological roles, and distribution. Four different ecological regions across Argentina were sampled. Molecular data (Sanger and next-generation sequencing [NGS] technology) were obtained to construct their phylogenetic relationships. Our results show a greater diversity of Phaeoclavulina than previously known. Eight taxa are described here, four of which are new species to science (Phaeoclavulina aena, P. angularis, P. prasina, and P. stelligera). Additionally, a neotypification is proposed for Phaeoclavulina camellia. For the other three species (P. articulotela, P. campoi, and P. minutispora), we provide new molecular data and elucidate their phylogenetic relationships with other previously described species. In addition, a key to species of Phaeoclavulina from Argentina and Chile is included to facilitate identification of known taxa. Finally, most Phaeoclavulina species richness is associated with tropical and subtropical forests.

PREMISE:The agaricomycete order Cantharellales contains approximately 1000 species of fungi characterized by diverse morphological forms, ecological guilds, and nutritional modes. Examples include coralloid lichens that form symbioses with unicellular green algae, bulbil-forming lichenicolous species, corticioid free-living fungi that degrade dead sources of organic carbon, pathogens that cause plant disease, orchid root endosymbionts, and ectomycorrhizal fungi including popular edible mushrooms. However, evolutionary relationships in the Cantharellales remain poorly understood due to conflicting estimates based on ribosomal DNA loci. METHODS:We constructed a five-gene phylogeny of the Cantharellales using data from 301 specimens to evaluate family-level relationships. We used penalized likelihood to estimate divergence times and ancestral state reconstruction to test the hypothesis of multiple independent origins of biotrophic ecologies in the order and whether those transitions are younger than the divergence times of associated plant or lichen hosts. RESULTS:Four monophyletic families were recovered with strong support: Botryobasidiaceae, Ceratobasidiaceae, Hydnaceae s.l., and Tulasnellaceae, with Hydnaceae containing the greatest species richness and morphological diversity. Our results suggest the Cantharellales diverged during the Carboniferous period with subsequent diversification following the Permian-Triassic extinction. Ancestral state reconstruction supports a saprotrophic most recent common ancestor with at least three transitions to an ectomycorrhizal ecology, multiple transitions to a lichenicolous habit with one or more subsequent transitions to mutualistic nutritional modes, four transitions to an orchid mycorrhizal ecology, and two transitions to a lichenized lifestyle. CONCLUSIONS:This study represents the first comprehensive examination of the evolution of form and function across this ecologically and morphologically diverse order of fungi.