The war in Ukraine has caused severe damage to the national power grid, significantly impacting social welfare through the loss of electricity for civilian households, healthcare, and water supply infrastructure. This study examines the urgent need for a sustainable recovery that integrates energy security with European Union decarbonization objectives and environmental resilience. The novelty lies in linking real-time wartime outage dynamics with empirically grounded decentralized recovery pathways, offering a framework to “build back better” under active conflict. The purpose is to evaluate the conditions under which a centralized energy system can be reconstructed to reduce military vulnerability while remaining compatible with long-term climate goals. The study applied an integrated analytical approach by adapting internationally recognized Recovery and Peacebuilding Assessment and Rapid Damage and Needs Assessment frameworks to an active-war context. Data were synthesized from over 100 verified sources supplemented by Geographic Information System based mapping to visualize damage intensity across 24 administrative regions. The analysis relies on cross-referencing state reports with international assessments. Findings show that Ukraine’s effective electricity generation capacity fell by approximately 61

The internationalization of higher education has become a key trend and response to the growth of globalization and online learning. After the start of the Russian war in Ukraine, Ukrainian higher education underwent significant destruction. Ukrainian HEIs have been significantly losing their capacity for development. Loss of human capital, including educational losses, becomes more relevant from the perspective of further sector development.This paper explores the intersection of DDP implementation and the implementation of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD), focusing on faculty members’ experiences within the Twinning Initiative framework. By investigating faculty members’ perceptions of quality assurance gaps and examining the impact of DDPs on the integration of SDGs, the study provides insights into how these programs contribute to advancing Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in higher education. This study employed semi-structured interviews. Interviewees were selected from the academic staff of five of the six Ukrainian universities involved in DDPs. Nine interviews were conducted in the period from April 2024 to June 2024. All interviewees represent the double-degree staff from different roles.Despite some differences between the procedures, the principles of internal quality assurance in Ukrainian universities correspond to those of their British partners. The findings show that implementing DDP promotes “learning by doing” for teaching staff, encouraging curriculum innovation and professional development. This study highlights the potential of DDP to stimulate the implementation of ESD principles in higher education and suggests directions for future research, particularly in war-affected regions. Acknowledgment This contribution is prepared with the support and funding under Researchers at Risk Fellowships Programme led by the British Academy in partnership with the Academy of Medical Sciences, the Royal Academy of Engineering, the Royal Society and Council for At-Risks Academics (CARA), and in the framework of the realization the Erasmus+ KA 2 CBHE project “Universities-Communities: Strengthening Cooperation” (Grant Agreement 101083077), and Jean Monnet Centre of Excellence “EU Studies of Social Innovations in Education” (ESSIE) – 101085552 – ERASMUS-JMO-2022-COE.The European Commission’s support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents that reflect the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

Military actions bring many negative consequences both in the short and long term. In particular, not only people suffer during armed aggression, but also the ecosystem and agrocenoses. This article examined the impact of bombardment of agricultural land with aerial bombs and established whether it was really contaminated with heavy metals. Samples were collected in two regions of Ukraine - Sumy and Chernihiv - from craters formed by bombing. The soil was taken directly from the bottom of the crater, at three points on its slope and 20 meters from the crater, in a conditionally undamaged area. The soil was analyzed in the laboratory using X-ray fluorescence analysis. The study analyzed the content of barium, zirconium, rubidium, zinc, and vanadium soil samples from a crater. The impact of aerial bombings on the concentration of heavy metals in the soils of the farms under investigation is unclear, it may be inferred. The concentration of barium, zirconium, and manganese on the crater slopes is higher in certain farms than in others, but overall trends do not show an obvious increase in these elements when compared to the control sites. However, several farms did not report significant shifts in the heavy metal composition, indicating how challenging it is to monitor whether explosions affect the concentrations of these elements. With a few exceptions, other heavy elements including strontium, rubidium, and zinc did not consistently exhibit excesses in the craters. Therefore, further, more thorough assessment of soil contamination should be carried out and methods for remediation should be developed.

Every year, the problem of the third mission of a university is popularized in scientific discourse. The social responsibility of higher education institutions in the conditions of the war between russia and Ukraine and the post-war period is to overcome the multidirectional tasks of higher education, concentrate and strengthen efforts to implement social projects, expand directions for the development of interaction between universities and territorial communities, improve the quality of research to restore the state economy and its development. Therefore, there is a need to rethink the ways of direct and indirect influence on society, the country in particular. The purpose of this paper is to determine the level of awareness and readiness for interaction between the university and the community. The study was conducted from January to June 2020 with the participation of 1,050 respondents from 25 regions of Ukraine. According to the conducted survey, the majority of respondents believe that universities should contribute to the development of the community and note the mutual benefit of university-community interaction for universities and local communities. However, the survey results also showed a low participation experience combined with the willingness to participate in activities offered by higher education institutions. Due to the full-scale war, which fundamentally changed the conditions and affected the efficiency of both universities and most communities, the choice of a community involvement model within the third mission of a university, taking into account the pre-war readiness of universities for a productive community and modern military challenges, remains relevant. Acknowledgment This contribution is prepared in the framework of the realization the Erasmus+ KA 2 CBHE project “Universities-Communities: Strengthening Cooperation” (Grant Agreement 101083077) and with the support and funding under Researchers at Risk Fellowships Programme led by the British Academy in partnership with the Academy of Medical Sciences, the Royal Academy of Engineering, the Royal Society and Council for At-Risks Academics (CARA). The European Commission’s support for the production of this publication does not constitute an endorsement of the contents, which reflect the views only of the authors, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use that may be made of the information contained therein.

Since Russia’s 2022 invasion, Ukraine’s civilian energy infrastructure has faced systematic attack and requires urgent and strategic reconstruction. This study confronts the dual challenges of rebuilding Ukraine’s energy system rapidly to mitigate civilian and economic disruption while aligning this to long-term goals of sustainability and energy security. We demonstrate that Ukraine can readily meet future energy demands through a fully renewable electrified system at costs comparable to those from fossil fuels and nuclear power. Contrary to previous reliance on high-carbon energy sources, we find a diversified renewable energy portfolio, including significant solar photovoltaic and wind contributions, can efficiently meet growing energy demands and position Ukraine as an energy exporter, capitalising on its geographical advantages. This study’s approach, based on open data and models, extends beyond national borders and offers a model for post-conflict reconstruction that harmonizes immediate recovery with sustainable energy transition.

The development of oxidative and nitrative stress and the processes of free radical oxidation are associated with many pathological processes. Damage of any origin leads to the activation of free radical processes not only in the place of damage, but also in the whole organism. The aim of the study is to assess the state of lipid peroxidation, content of GSH and GSSG and the activity of NO-synthase and arginase in lymphocytes and peripheral blood serum in men with erectile dysfunction due to combat trauma. The research was conducted on peripheral blood lymphocytes of men injured as a result of combat operations (shrapnel and bullet wounds) in the Russian-Ukrainian war, and who were treated at the Military Medical Clinical Center of the Western Region (Lviv, Ukraine). The research group of men with combat injuries was divided into two age groups: men aged 20–39 years and men aged 40–53 years. The MDA content in the blood serum of patients of both age groups was 1.35 times higher than in the control group. In peripheral blood lymphocytes, the MDA content in patients of the young age group was 1.27, and in patients of the middle age group in 1.39 times higher than in the control group. Simultaneously, no significant changes in the concentration of oxidized glutathione in blood serum and blood lymphocytes were found between men with erectile dysfunction due to combat trauma and healthy men. GSH content in blood serum in patients of both age groups was significantly lower than in the control group. The arginase/NOS ratio in blood serum was 9.75 times lower in the young age group and in 20.45 times lower in the middle age group compared to healthy men. It was established that in the blood serum and blood lymphocytes of men with erectile dysfunction due to combat trauma, processes of lipid peroxidation were intensified and the GSH level was reduced. The GSH/GSSG ratio was reduced only in blood serum. It was found that the oxidative stress is associated with development of nitrative stress. The arginase/NOS ratio was shifted towards increased NOS activity. Activation of iNOS was accompanied by significant inhibition of cNOS. Further study of biochemical mechanisms is important to understand the triggers of erectile dysfunction due to combat trauma.

The war in Ukraine has led to long-term consequences for safety and sustainability. The destruction of energy infrastructure affects air quality, exacerbates the energy and climate crisis, and hinders progress toward carbon neutrality at both local and global levels. This paper aims to justify the need for decentralizing and diversifying the energy supply in Ukraine in line with renewable energy transition policies. It details the challenges faced by Ukraine's energy sector, the environmental impact of the war, and the implications for sustainable transition, drawing on data from over 100 primary sources and reports. For the first time, it provides an analysis of the damage to energy infrastructure and identifies the critical weaknesses in Ukraine's energy system. The monthly dynamics of energy infrastructure damage and repairs since the war began indicating that the damage is too extensive to restore the infrastructure to its original state. Renovating the energy sector based on renewable resources, including local sources, is less expensive and more profitable in the long-term perspective. Decentralizing energy supply by leveraging local renewable energy sources is proposed as the most effective policy.

Резюме.Чоловічий фактор непліддя становить майже 50% усіх неплідних пар.Важливим чинником, який впливає на якість сперми та відіграє суттєву роль у репродуктивному процесі чоловіків, є іони кальцію (Са 2+

The most difficult form of male infertility to treat is azoospermia. It is identified as a complete absence of sperm in the ejaculate. Depending on the nature and causes of impaired spermatogenesis, azoospermia is divided into obstructive (excretory, OA) and non-obstructive (secretory, NOA). Testicular biopsy is the most effective method of diagnosis and a component of possible treatment for azoospermia. It is the only objective method of differential diagnosis between non-obstructive and obstructive forms of azoospermia. The aim: histological analysis of testicular biopsies of men with various forms of azoospermia. Мaterials and Methods. 78 infertile men with azoospermia were examined. They were divided into two groups: the first group, men with NOA (n = 28); the second group, men with OA (n = 50). The biopsy was preceded by a mandatory ultrasound diagnosis of the portal system. The biopsy was performed using the method of open operative access. Biopsies were mostly taken from the more palpable testicle or from both testicles. Biopsies were fixed in buffered 10% formalin (pH 7.2). After 1 day, they were dehydrated in 70% ethanol and embedded in paraffin. For histological studies, sections with a thickness of 5 μm were stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Biopsies were evaluated in accordance with previously described methods. Results. Histological analysis of testicular biopsies from 28.7% of patients with a non-obstructive form of azoospermia showed swelling of the testicular stroma, destructive changes in testosterone-producing cells, disruption of the structure of the syncytial complexes of the spermatogenic epithelium, and the complete absence of the process of spermatogenesis in individual tortuous seminiferous tubules, the absence of contacts between sustentocytes, and in erythrocyte sludge in the lumen of vessels. 42.8% of patients had fibrosis of the testicular stroma, stroma swelling, thinning of the wall of convoluted seminiferous tubules, violation of the structure of the syncytial complexes of the spermatogenic epithelium, proliferation of the wall of the convoluted seminiferous tubules into their lumen, and infiltration of the testicular stroma with lymphocytes. In 54.0% of patients with preserved spermatogenesis and an obstructive form of azoospermia, it was possible to find a history of orchoepididymitis in the anamnesis; one patient (2.0%) underwent bilateral orchopexy at the age of 5 years due to cryptorchidism; 6.0% recalled the trauma calculi in the anamnesis; and 38.0% denied any factors affecting fecundity in the anamnesis. Conclusions. The non-obstructive form of azoospermia is characterized by the following parameters: mostly a violation of the structure of the spermatogenic epithelium, a complete absence of the process of spermatogenesis in individual convoluted seminiferous tubules, a violation of the structure of the hematotesticular barrier, and a violation of blood microcirculation. The histological picture of preserved spermatogenesis is of the same type in 88.0% of patients with an obstructive form of azoospermia. In most tubules, a fixed number of cell rows is preserved, and cells of various stages of spermatogenesis are determined in them: spermatogonies, spermatocytes, a moderate number of spermatids. In the lumen of the tubules, exfoliated cells and a moderate number of spermatozoa are found.

The mechanisms of formation of male infertility are increasingly becoming immune-dependent. Immunological isolation of the testes is provided by the anatomical blood-testis barrier and the special tolerance of the immune system to antigens expressed on male gametes. For a better understanding of the immunopathogenetic mechanisms of infertility, a study of the role of various immune factors is required. The aim: to study the role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in blood serum to clarify their role in spermatogenesis. Materials and Methods: 45 infertile men aged 22-48 were examined. They were divided into 2 groups: first group – 22 men with a systemic autoimmune disease - rheumatoid arthritis; second group – 23 somatically healthy patients with idiopathic infertility. The control group included 27 fertile healthy men aged 22-48 years. Determination of the cytokines concentration in blood serum was carried out by the immunoenzymatic method. Student's t-test was used to compare the significant difference in mean values between groups. P < 0.05 was considered significant. Results. Patients with autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis) had the highest rate of leukocytospermia, indicating a possible long-term inflammatory process. In patients with idiopathic infertility, oligozoospermia was diagnosed in 3 patients (13.04%), oligoasthenozoospermia in 7 patients (30.36%), asthenozoospermia in 8 patients (34.78%) and leucocytospermia in 5 patients (21.82%). In patients with rheumatoid arthritis, the concentration of IL-18 (cytokine of the IL-1 family) in the blood serum of infertile men was 1.36 times higher than that of fertile men. The level of IL-6 was 6 times higher, and the concentration of IFN-γ exceeded the norm by more than three times. The level of IL-10 was 9,4 times higher than in control group. Significant changes in the serum cytokine profile were recorded in men with idiopathic infertility. The level of pro-inflammatory cytokines increased statistically significantly: IL-18 – 1.45 times, IL-6 – 2.85 times, IFN-γ – 2.65 times. Simultaneously, the level of anti-inflammatory cytokines increased: IL-10 – 3.0 times. We also analyzed the ratio of serum levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Significant increase in ІL-10/TNF-α ratio was recorded in men with idiopathic infertility and infertile men with rheumatoid arthritis. Specifically, in men with idiopathic infertility the ІL-10/TNF-α ratio was 3.3 times higher and in patients with rheumatoid arthritis the ІL-10/TNF-α ratio was 4.1 times higher than in control group. In patients with rheumatoid arthritis the ІL-10/ІFN-γ ratio was in 3 times higher than in control group. Significant positive correlations were found in healthy fertile men: TGF-β1 – IFN-γ, IL-10 – IL-18 and IL-10 – TNF-α. In men of the control group, the synthesis of IL-18 and TNF-α was balanced by the production of IL-10. The synthesis of IFN-γ was by balanced by the production of TGF-β1. Conclusions. The development of infertility associated with various accompanying pathologies is related with by changes in both systemic and local immune reactivity. The pro-inflammatory cytokine profile of blood serum and a decrease in the concentration of IL-1β are observed in patients with idiopathic infertility. The largest number of deviations of immune reactivity was found in infertile men with concomitant autoimmune diseases.

To date, according to statistics, in Ukraine there is an increase in the number of infertile marriages. Many studies have emphasized the male factor of infertility Often, male infertility is the result of a previous infectious disease or an acute genital inflammation. Microorganisms that infect sperm usually persist in the urinary tract as a monoinfection or form associations. Microorganisms in biofilms are able to acquire new, not yet studied, properties. Persistence of pathogens in the urogenital tract of men triggers several mechanisms of the pathological action on sperm, the first of which is the infectious factor, directly related to the adhesion and resulting in a complete or partial decrease in the mobility and deformation of sperm. On the other hand, the development of the inflammatory process as a trigger of an immune response directed simultaneously against the infectious agent and the affected sperm. The increase in the number of leukocytes at the site of inflammation activates the secretion of biological substances which also have a damaging effect on sperm. The generalized data allow drawing a conclusion about the significant influence of opportunistic and pathogenic microorganisms as part of associations or monoinfection on the morphofunctional state of spermatozoa.

This article describes new constructive solutions in the design of multistage shelf dryers and their efficiency in terms of the environmental safety of production. The urgency to develop the multistage shelf devices for the drying process is substantiated. The features of the improved shelf contacts are presented. The physical model of the interaction of “gas”-“solid” flows and the main advantages of the declared constructive solutions are described. Emissions of solid particles with outgoing gas can be significantly reduced by developing mechanisms for controlling the particles’ motion on the shelf and predicting the distribution law of particles in the device (while obtaining a reliable and uniform distribution of the gas flow). A comparative analysis of the solid particles’ concentration in the devices with different shelves (in comparison with classical fluidized bed devices) is presented. The necessity to use computer modeling in the optimization design of environmentally friendly drying units is substantiated. The computer modeling results of the hydrodynamic conditions of the gas flow in the dryer are presented. New designs of shelf units allow controlling the motion of dispersed particles in the workspace of the device. At the same time, it is possible to predict dust and small particles’ behavior and ensure their reliable trapping from outgoing gases. The obtained results have the prospects for further implementation due to the analysis of the dryer’s technology readiness level and the investigation of a roadmap for entering the domestic market.

The article presents data on the state of lipid peroxidation and the activity of NO-synthase isoforms and arginase in lymphocytes and peripheral blood serum in men injured in combat (bullet and shrapnel wounds). 68 men injured as a result of hostilities (shrapnel and bullet wounds), who made up the main group, were examined. 48 practically healthy men were included in the control group. Patients of the main and control groups were divided into two age subgroups each: 20–39 years and 40–60 years. The MDA content in the blood serum of patients of both subgroups of the main group was 1.4 times higher than in the individuals of the corresponding subgroups of the control group (p<0.05). In peripheral blood lymphocytes, the MDA content in patients of both age subgroups of the main group was 1.3–1.4 times higher than in individuals of the corresponding subgroups of the control group (p<0.05; p<0.01). The activity of inducible (Ca2+-independent) de novo synthesis of NO significantly increases in blood serum and lymphocytes of men injured as a result of hostilities. At the same time, the activity of Ca2+-dependent NO-synthase in blood lymphocytes of men injured as a result of hostilities was 2.4 times lower compared to the values in practically healthy men (p<0.001), while it almost did not change in blood serum. It was confirmed that the inducible NOS can activate the processes of lipid peroxidation in men injured as a result of hostilities, as a direct significant correlation of high strength was recorded between the activity of Ca2+-independent iNOS and the MDA content (r=0.74; p<0.05). A significant correlation of medium strength was also established between arginase activity and MDA content (r=0.52; p<0.05). Keywords: malondialdehyde, NO-synthase, arginase.

This chapter deals with the new methods of harmful emission disposal from waste gases in the production of granular products, particularly ammonium nitrate. Authors propose to use vortex granulators for ammonium nitrate production, which need to be improved to increase the environmental safety of the production. The following directions for waste disposal from ammonium nitrate production are proposed to improve the environmental safety of granulation plants: trapping fine fractions and dust with further sending for melt preparation, trapping ammonia with the formation of ammonia water for production needs, and trapping small fractions sending to further growing. All processes are implemented in the workspace of a vortex granulator with a design that allows to classify granules by size (weight) if there are additional sections for purification of gases (hot heat transfer agent). The study results of the outgoing gas composition and the fractional composition of the granular product enable authors to assert the effectiveness of the proposed design solutions. The paper also defines the main stages to promote new constructions of vortex granulators to the market, to create the granulation technology map in a vortex fluidized bed, and shows a technological trajectory for choosing an optimal granulation method.

Male infertility is a major health problem worldwide. According to a study of the WHO and the European Association of Urologists, the incidence of infertility is increasing worldwide. The male factor causes up to 50% of all cases of infertility in married couples and approximately 7% of men worldwide suffer from infertility. No cause can be found in approximately 30% of infertile men, and these cases are called idiopathic infertility. In many such cases, oxidative stress is believed to be the main causative factor. Oxidative stress, which is characterized by an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the antioxidant defense system, which is responsible for their neutralization, leads to damage to many cellular structures, especially phospholipids of cell membranes. The study is aimed at studying the adverse effect of lipid peroxidation on spermatogenesis in idiopathic male infertility. The study was conducted on the sperm of 56 men with normozoospermia and 30 men with oligoasthenozoospermia. The levels of malondialdehyde, zinc, fructose, NO-synthase activity and glutathione peroxidase (GP) in seminal plasma were correlated with sperm count and motility. Ejaculate malondialdehyde and NO-synthase activity were significantly higher, while zinc, fructose and GP were significantly lower in oligoasthenospermic than in normospermic men (p<0.001). A 1.8-fold decrease in the level of fructose in the spermogram of patients of group oligoasthenospermia, compared to the data of normozoospermic men correlated with processes of impaired motility and viability of spermatozoa. This was confirmed by the data obtained in the scientific work, in the form of a statistically significant difference in the average indicator of the quantitative content of fructose in the studied groups of patients. In particular, we found a positive correlation between the fructose content in the ejaculate and sperm motility (r=0.69), as well as a positive correlation between fructose content and the number of spermatozoa in the ejaculate (r=0.53). There was a significant negative correlation between malondialdehyde and NO-synthase with sperm count and motility in oligoasthenospermia. Elevated levels of malondialdehyde, NO-synthase in sperm, and decreased levels of zinc and GP in oligoasthenospermia may be responsible for impaired sperm membrane integrity and play a role in sperm DNA damage. The positive correlation of zinc with sperm count and sperm motility indicates an important role of zinc in spermatogenesis. Thus, these parameters may be useful in determining the fertilization potential of sperm in the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of male infertility, especially idiopathic infertility. Keywords: sperm plasma, malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase, NO-synthase, zinc, fructose.

Layered double hydroxides, especially Zn-Al, are valuable matrices for intercalation with various functional anions: dyes, medicines, food additives, etc. For the purposeful development and optimization of the technology for the synthesis of Zn-Al hydroxides intercalated with functional anions, the phase composition and crystal structure of Zn-Al nitrate layered double hydroxide samples (Zn:Al=4:1) synthesized at solution flow rates of 0.8 and 1.6 l/h, pH=7, 8, 9, 10 and t=10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 °С were studied. XRD showed that all samples synthesized at different temperatures, pH, and solution flow rates were Zn-Al layered double hydroxides with an α-Zn(OH)2 crystal lattice of medium crystallinity, with an admixture of an oxide phase with a ZnO lattice. Three sections of the dependence of the crystallite size of the sample on the synthesis temperature were distinguished: 10–20 °C, 30–50 °C, and 60 °C, within which an increase in temperature led to an increase in crystallinity. A hypothesis was put forward about a change in the mechanism or kinetics of LDH formation at temperatures of 30 °C and 60 °C. An increase in the pH of the synthesis and the flow rate of solutions led to an increase in crystallinity. A retrospective comparative analysis of the phase composition and crystal structure of Zn-Al-nitrate and Zn-Al-tripolyphosphate (tartrazine or Orange Yellow S) LDH samples was carried out. It was found that the use of large and multi-charged functional anions caused significant adsorption on precipitate nuclei and difficult intercalation. As a result, low crystallinity was formed (Tartrazine anion) or a significant part of LDH was decomposed to oxide (tripolyphosphate and Orange Yellow S anions).

The most difficult form of male infertility to treat is azoospermia. Azoospermia is defined as the complete absence of spermatozoa in the ejaculate. The age of the patients who underwent clinical and diagnostic studies varied between 22 and 45 years. Among 119 examined patients with azoospermia, 58.0% were diagnosed with secretory infertility. In 42.0% patients, the presence of spermatogenesis in excretory-obturational infertility was established. Among 69 patients with secretory infertility, 23 had azoospermia in the absence of spermatozoa and spermatogenic cells, which accounted for 33.3% of all patients with secretory infertility (in particular, 2 with leukocytospermia, which indicated damage to the tubular apparatus as a result of previous orchitis). In 66.6% patients, azoospermia was observed in the absence of spermatozoa, but in the presence of precursor cells of spermatogenesis. 11.5% patients out of 69 (group 1) were diagnosed with concomitant diseases. We see that arterial hypertension, diseases of the gastrointestinal tract, liver, and kidneys occur. Hereditary diseases were not detected in the examined patients. Pain of varying intensity was found in 6.7% of patients, varying degrees of testicular hypoplasia were found in 7.6%, dysuria in 13.4%, epididymitis in history 8.4%; history of epidemic mumps 6.7%; 12.6% had depression, restlessness, sleep disorders, and 21.0% had erectile dysfunction. According to clinical examination and ultrasound, chronic prostatitis is suspected in 19.2% of patients. An increase in the number of leukocytes in the blood was found in 13.2% patients. According to ultrasound, 60.5% of the patients with azoospermia had normal testicular sizes, and 39.5% had reduced testes. The volume of the testicles in the control group was 22.3 ± 2.1 cm³ on average, varying from 18.3 to 25.1 cm³. In the group with azoospermia, the volume of the testicles was on average 16.7 ± 1.7 cm³ and varied from 8.2 to 21.1 cm³, that is, the volume of the testicles in patients with azoospermia was on average 1.3 times smaller compared to normozoospermia. In the obstructive form of azoospermia, diffuse changes were detected in both testicles, probably obturational changes. Hypoplasia of the left testicle and increased echogenicity were observed in the non-obstructive form of azoospermia. The veins of the spermatic cord were moderately dilated. There was a normal amount of free fluid in the scrotum. According to elastography, the elasticity of the testicles was above normal. Obturational processes in the testicles were suspected. The hemodynamic parameters of testicular parenchymal blood flow in infertile men obtained by ultrasound dopplerography are of important diagnostic value. The average value of the linear blood flow velocity in the arteries of the parenchyma in men with normozoospermia was 0.107 ± 0.015 m/s on the right, and 0.103 ± 0.012 m/s on the left. With azoospermia, the average value of the linear velocity of blood flow on the right was 0.086 ± 0.012 m/s, and on the left – 0.084 ± 0.008 m/s. Thus, the hemodynamic indicators of the scrotum show that the most pronounced changes are found in men with azoospermia in the absence of spermatogenesis.

The mechanisms of formation of male infertility are increasingly becoming immune dependent. This study aims to study the role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines in seminal fluid to clarify their role in spermatogenesis. This research is carried out at rheumatology and urology departments of Danylo Halytsky Lviv National Medical University (Ukraine). 45 infertile men aged 22–48 were examined. They were divided into 2 groups: first group – 22 men with a systemic autoimmune disease – rheumatoid arthritis; second group – 23 somatically healthy patients with idiopathic infertility. The control group included 27 fertile healthy men aged 22–48 years. Student's t-test was used to compare the significant difference in mean values between groups. Patients with autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis) had the highest rate of leukocytospermia, indicating a possible long-term inflammatory process. The TGF-β1 level was higher in men with idiopathic infertility, and in patients with autoimmune pathology was reduced compared to the control group, however these changes were not significant. At the same time in patient of both group the level a pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-18 increased approximately by 2.5 times. In patients with idiopathic infertility and patients with autoimmune pathology, a simultaneous increase in the IFN-γ level and a decrease in the IL-1β level were found. The ІL-6 level in seminal plasma of infertile men of both groups was increased. The ratio IL-10/TNF-α was decreased in seminal plasma of infertile men with rheumatoid arthritis. It was found that in autoimmune pathology, the increased level of IL-1β in blood serum compared to controls was associated with its reduced level in seminal fluid (r=-0.51, p<0.05). In idiopathic infertility, a low level of IL-1β in seminal fluid was also associated with a low concentration of this cytokine in blood serum (r=0.62, p<0.05). The functioning of the immune and reproductive systems of the male body is closely related and interdependent. Disorders of immune reactivity, which accompany the development of autoimmune pathology associated with disorders of reproductive function in men. The largest number of deviations of immune reactivity was found in infertile men with concomitant autoimmune diseases. Keywords: cytokines, male infertility, idiopathic infertility, rheumatoid arthritis.