Cochlear implants (CIs) for single-sided deafness (SSD) can partially restore the ability to use binaural interactions to improve masked speech intelligibility. When target and masking speech are presented to the acoustic-hearing (AH) ear, presenting a copy of the masker to the CI ear facilitates spatial release from masking (SRM) and improves speech perception. The reverse is not true, however; presenting a copy of the masker to the AH ear can impede CI-ear speech perception. This “bilateral speech interference” varies greatly across listeners and understanding the source of this variability is crucial to maximizing SRM. Bilateral speech interference was assessed in 19 SSD-CI listeners (ages 20–77 years) using the coordinate response measure corpus. Participants also completed two non-auditory selective-attention tasks (Stroop, Flanker) and a working memory task (Reading Span). Bilateral speech interference was significantly associated with older age and poorer selective attention, while better working memory was significantly associated with improved performance overall. The role of domain-general selective attention points to possible clinical applications including selective-attention training or pre-operative screening for risk of interference. [The views expressed in this abstract are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Department of War or U.S. Government.]

The relationship between pupil size, task performance, and self-reported effort has served as a fruitful way of understanding how listeners prepare (baseline or tonic pupil size) and deploy (task-evoked or phasic pupil response) cognitive resources during a listening task. However, changes in pupil size are sensitive not only to changes in listening effort but also physiological differences, some of which may be confounded across groups. Age is one such factor: older adults’ pupil size and dynamic range tend to diminish with age (senile miosis), obscuring researchers’ ability to compare how older and younger adults prepare and deploy listening effort. To account for this age-related physiological discrepancy in pupil size, methods to normalize or scale pupil size have been proposed. Whether these methods account for physiological differences while preserving potential task-evoked differences has not yet been evaluated. The present study seeks to address this by comparing three scaling methods (baseline subtraction, luminance dynamic range scaling, and task dynamic range scaling), as well as showing the pitfalls of performing no scaling at all. To accomplish this, pupil size was recorded while normal-hearing younger and older adults listened to 60-second storybook passages in quiet. The interaction between baseline pupil size and the task-evoked pupil response was analyzed using generalized additive mixed models. The results showed that applying no scaling at all or only performing baseline subtraction resulted in significantly smaller pupil responses in older compared to younger adults, while (luminance or task) dynamic range scaling was able to account for physiological differences between groups while simultaneously capturing the dynamic relationship between baseline pupil size and the task-evoked pupil response. Overall, the results of this study suggest that whether and how to apply within-participant scaling depends on the theoretical question to be addressed and the specifics of the study design and analyses.

Speech perception in noisy environments is a common challenge among older adults, even for those with clinically normal hearing. Cognitive decline may be one of the contributing factors, and, as such, auditory-cognitive training may enhance speech perception in these conditions. This study aims to determine if auditory-cognitive training can improve speech-in-noise listening in normal-hearing, older adults using neural and behavioral measures, supplemented with comparisons across younger and older adults. Neural responses were obtained using magnetoencephalography (MEG) while participants listened to long, narrative passages (60 s) under four noise conditions. Neural measures employed reverse correlation using encoding and decoding models, via the temporal response function (TRF) framework, to predict neural responses and reconstruct stimulus features, respectively, with the boosting algorithm to enforce sparsity. Behavioral measures, such as working memory (reading span; RSPAN), speech perception in noise (SPIN), and nonlinguistic auditory stream segregation (stochastic figure-ground; SFG) showed improvement post-training, along with neural and subjective ratings for listening effort. Additionally, auditory-cognitive training may enhance the neural contrast between the selectively attended and unattended stimulus reconstructions, and pre-training SFG performance may predict the extent of this neuroplasticity change. These results provide promising, additional insight into the effects of auditory-cognitive training, both perceptually and neurally.

Single-sided-deafness cochlear implants [SSD-CIs; one normal-hearing (NH) and one CI ear] provide speech-in-noise benefits based on head-shadow advantages. SSD-CIs can also produce binaural benefits, but only in certain situations. This study examined how poor across-ear integration might limit binaural benefit. Ten SSD-CI listeners were tested with different combinations of target and competing coordinate-response-measuresentences presented to each ear. When target and masking speech were presented to the NH ear, adding a copy of the masker to the CI ear improved speech-identification performance, demonstrating binaural benefit. When target and masking speech were presented to the CI ear, adding a copy of the masker to the NH ear interfered with speech-identification performance. In both cases, adding different masking speech in the contralateral ear (instead of a copy of the first masker) produced interference. The results suggest that SSD-CI users experience partial binaural integration—enough to facilitate binaural benefits when attending to the NH ear, but not enough to overcome the interference produced by the perception of additional competing voices when attending to the CI ear. [The views expressed in this abstract are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Department of Defense or U.S. Government.]

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) is a neuromodulatory technique that may have numerous potential health and human performance benefits. However, optimal stimulation parameters for maximizing taVNS efficacy are unknown. Progress is impeded by disagreement on the identification of a biomarker that reliably indexes activation of neuromodulatory systems targeted by taVNS, including the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system. Pupil size varies with LC-NE activity and is one potential taVNS biomarker that has shown inconsistent sensitivity to taVNS in prior studies. The present study examined the relationship between pupil size and taVNS using stimulation parameters that have shown promising behavioral effects in prior studies but have received comparatively little attention. Participants received trains of 50 μs taVNS pulses delivered continuously below perceptual threshold at 300 Hz to the left external acoustic meatus (EAM) while pupil size was recorded during a pupillary light reflex task. Analysis of pupil size using generalized additive mixed modeling (GAMM) revealed a non-linear relationship between taVNS intensity and pupil diameter. Active taVNS increased pupil size during stimulation for participants who received taVNS between 2 and approximately 4.8 mA, but not for participants who received higher-intensity taVNS (up to 8.1 mA). In addition, taVNS effects persisted in subsequent blocks, mitigating decreases in pupil size over the course of the task. These findings suggest 300 Hz taVNS activates the LC-NE system when applied to the EAM, but its effects may be counteracted at higher intensities.

Speech intelligibility among competing talkers becomes more difficult with age, even for older adults with clinically normal hearing. Recently, there has been a growing interest in the implementation of auditory-cognitive training to improve speech-in-noise recognition performance, particularly for older adults. In this study, we implemented two levels of cognitive demand in an adaptive auditory-cognitive training program that used a competing-speaker paradigm. Older adults with normal to near-normal hearing thresholds were assessed on training performance (at the individual and group level), self-reported training strategies, and far-transfer learning in a speech-perception-in-noise task. Training performance analysis revealed that some older adults, particularly those in the more demanding training, performed poorly during the auditory-cognitive training itself. Some participants in this group reported disengagement, potentially due to the low level of those individuals' self-reported satisfaction with engaging in challenging tasks in daily life. Despite these challenges, however, both groups generally improved in the far-transfer learning assessment, though there was variation among participants. Our results suggest that too-high levels of cognitive demand within the auditory-cognitive training may limit some aspects of training outcomes for speech perception in noise; however, higher cognitive demand may be beneficial for those who enjoy challenging tasks.

This study analyses the complex emotions and level of user engagement associated with mentions of Russia by Lithuanian socio-political influencers on publicly available Facebook posts between 2015 and 2020. Using the CrowdTangle API and a mixed methods approach to data, we examined four potentially sensitive periods - around elections, a political corruption scandal, and during the first COVID-19-related national lockdowns, annotated for emotion and topic content and analyzed with quantitative modeling of emotion data coupled with qualitative analysis of posts in order to contextualize results. Curiously, we found no heightened negativity expressed toward Russia around election time. We identified, however, considerable anger and contempt beneath the overall veneer of happiness in our sampled posts, with posts mentioning Russia generally containing more negative emotions.

Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS) is a neuromodulatory technique that may have numerous potential health and human performance benefits. However, optimal stimulation parameters for maximizing taVNS efficacy are unknown. Progress is impeded by disagreement on the identification of a biomarker that reliably indexes activation of neuromodulatory systems targeted by taVNS, including the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) system. Pupil size varies with LC-NE activity and is one potential taVNS biomarker that has shown inconsistent sensitivity to taVNS in prior studies. The present study examined the relationship between pupil size and taVNS using stimulation parameters that have shown promising behavioral effects in prior studies but have received comparatively little attention. Participants received 30-second trains of 50 μs taVNS pulses delivered below perceptual threshold at 300 Hz to the left external acoustic meatus (EAM) while pupil size was recorded during a pupillary light reflex task. Analysis of pupil size using generalized additive mixed modelling (GAMM) revealed a nonlinear relationship between taVNS intensity and pupil diameter. Active taVNS increased pupil size during stimulation for participants who received taVNS between 2 and approximately 4.8 mA, but not for participants who received higher intensity taVNS (up to 8.1 mA). In addition, taVNS effects persisted in subsequent blocks, mitigating decreases in pupil size over the course of the task. These findings suggest 300 Hz taVNS activates the LC-NE system when applied to the EAM, but its effects may be counteracted at higher intensities.### Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.

Listening to speech in noise can require substantial mental effort, even among younger normal-hearing adults. The task-evoked pupil response (TEPR) has been shown to track the increased effort exerted to recognize words or sentences in increasing noise. However, few studies have examined the trajectory of listening effort across longer, more natural, stretches of speech, or the extent to which expectations about upcoming listening difficulty modulate the TEPR. Seventeen younger normal-hearing adults listened to 60-s-long audiobook passages, repeated three times in a row, at two different signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) while pupil size was recorded. There was a significant interaction between SNR, repetition, and baseline pupil size on sustained listening effort. At lower baseline pupil sizes, potentially reflecting lower attention mobilization, TEPRs were more sustained in the harder SNR condition, particularly when attention mobilization remained low by the third presentation. At intermediate baseline pupil sizes, differences between conditions were largely absent, suggesting these listeners had optimally mobilized their attention for both SNRs. Lastly, at higher baseline pupil sizes, potentially reflecting over-mobilization of attention, the effect of SNR was initially reversed for the second and third presentations: participants initially appeared to disengage in the harder SNR condition, resulting in reduced TEPRs that recovered in the second half of the story. Together, these findings suggest that the unfolding of listening effort over time depends critically on the extent to which individuals have successfully mobilized their attention in anticipation of difficult listening conditions.

IntroductionTraditional studies of the population called “heritage speakers” (HS) have treated this group as distinct from other bilingual populations, e.g., simultaneous or late bilinguals (LB), focusing on group differences in the competencies of the first-acquired language or “heritage language”. While several explanations have been proposed for such differences (e.g., incomplete acquisition, attrition, differential processing mechanisms), few have taken into consideration the individual variation that must occur, due to the fluctuation of factors such as exposure and use that characterize all bilinguals. In addition, few studies have used implicit measures, e.g., psychophysiological methods (ERPs; Eye-tracking), that can circumvent confounding variables such as resorting to conscious metalinguistic knowledge.MethodologyThis study uses pupillometry, a method that has only recently been used in psycholinguistic studies of bilingualism, to investigate pupillary responses to three syntactic island constructions in two groups of Spanish/English bilinguals: heritage speakers and late bilinguals. Data were analyzed using generalized additive mixed effects models (GAMMs) and two models were created and compared to one another: one with group (LB/HS) and the other with groups collapsed and current and historical use of Spanish as continuous variables.ResultsResults show that group-based models generally yield conflicting results while models collapsing groups and having usage as a predictor yield consistent ones. In particular, current use predicts sensitivity to L1 ungrammaticality across both HS and LB populations. We conclude that individual variation, as measured by use, is a critical factor tha must be taken into account in the description of the language competencies and processing of heritage and late bilinguals alike.

Social media users are often exposed to cute content that evokes emotional reactions and influences them to feel or behave certain ways. The cuteness phenomenon in social media has been scarcely studied despite its prevalence and potential to spread quickly and affect large audiences. The main framework for understanding cuteness and emotions related to cuteness outside of social media is baby schema (having juvenile characteristics), which triggers parental instincts. We propose that baby schema is a necessary but not sufficient component of explaining what constitutes cuteness and how people react to it in the social media context. Cute social media content may also have characteristics that evoke approach motivations (a desire to interact with an entity, generally with the expectation of having a positive experience) that can manifest behaviorally in sharing and other prosocial online behaviors. We developed and performed initial validation for measures in social media contexts of: (1) cute attributes that encompass both baby schema and other proposed cuteness characteristics (the Cuteness Attributes Taxonomy, CAT) and (2) the emotional reactions they trigger (Heartwarming Social Media, HSM). We used the Kama Muta Multiplex Scale (KAMMUS Two), as previously validated measure of kama muta (an emotion akin to tenderness; from Sanskrit, "moved by love") as a measure of emotional reaction to cute stimuli and the dimension Cute Content of the Social Media Emotions Annotation Guide (SMEmo-Cute Content) as a developed measure of gestalt cute content to help validate our newly developed measures. Using 1,875 Polish tweets, our results confirmed that cute social media content predicted a kama muta response, but not all KAMMUS Two subscales were sensitive to cute content, and that the HSM measure was a better indicator of the presence of cute content. Further, the CAT measure is an effective means of categorizing cute attributes of social media content. These results suggest potential differences between in-person, online, and social media experiences evoking cute emotional reactions, and the need for metrics that are developed and validated for use in social media contexts.

Listening to speech in noise can require substantial mental effort, even among younger normal-hearing adults. The task-evoked pupil response (TEPR) has been shown to track the increased effort exerted to recognize words or sentences in increasing noise. However, few studies have examined the trajectory of listening effort across longer, more natural, stretches of speech, or the extent to which expectations about upcoming listening difficulty modulate the TEPR. Seventeen younger normal-hearing adults listened to 60-s-long audiobook passages, repeated three times in a row, at two different signal-to-noise ratios (SNRs) while pupil size was recorded. There was a significant interaction between SNR, repetition, and baseline pupil size on sustained listening effort. At lower baseline pupil sizes, potentially reflecting lower attention mobilization, TEPRs were more sustained in the harder SNR condition, particularly when attention mobilization remained low by the third presentation. At intermediate baseline pupil sizes, differences between conditions were largely absent, suggesting these listeners had optimally mobilized their attention for both SNRs. Lastly, at higher baseline pupil sizes, potentially reflecting over-mobilization of attention, the effect of SNR was initially reversed for the second and third presentations: participants initially appeared to disengage in the harder SNR condition, resulting in reduced TEPRs that recovered in the second half of the story. Together, these findings suggest that the unfolding of listening effort over time depends critically on the extent to which individuals have successfully mobilized their attention in anticipation of difficult listening conditions.

The proper measurement of emotion is vital to understanding the relationship between emotional expression in social media and other factors, such as online information sharing. This work develops a standardized annotation scheme for quantifying emotions in social media using recent emotion theory and research. Human annotators assessed both social media posts and their own reactions to the posts' content on scales of 0 to 100 for each of 20 (Study 1) and 23 (Study 2) emotions. For Study 1, we analyzed English-language posts from Twitter (N = 244) and YouTube (N = 50). Associations between emotion ratings and text-based measures (LIWC, VADER, EmoLex, NRC-EIL, Emotionality) demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity. In Study 2, we tested an expanded version of the scheme in-country, in-language, on Polish (N = 3648) and Lithuanian (N = 1934) multimedia Facebook posts. While the correlations were lower than with English, patterns of convergent and discriminant validity with EmoLex and NRC-EIL still held. Coder reliability was strong across samples, with intraclass correlations of .80 or higher for 10 different emotions in Study 1 and 16 different emotions in Study 2. This research improves the measurement of emotions in social media to include more dimensions, multimedia, and context compared to prior schemes.

While emotional content predicts social media post sharing, competing theories of emotion imply different predictions about how emotional content will influence the virality of social media posts. We tested and compared these theoretical frameworks. Teams of annotators assessed more than 4000 multimedia posts from Polish and Lithuanian Facebook for more than 20 emotions. We found that, drawing on semantic space theory, modeling discrete emotions independently was superior to models examining valence (positive or negative), activation/arousal (high or low), or clusters of emotions and was on par with but had more explanatory power than a seven basic emotion model. Certain discrete emotions were associated with post sharing, including both positive and negative and relatively lower and higher activation/arousal emotions (e.g., amusement, cute/kama muta, anger, and sadness) even when controlling for number of followers, time up, topic, and Facebook angry reactions. These results provide key insights into better understanding of social media post virality.

Speech recognition in noisy environments can be challenging and requires listeners to accurately segregate a target speaker from irrelevant background noise. Stochastic figure-ground (SFG) tasks in which temporally coherent inharmonic pure-tones must be identified from a background have been used to probe the non-linguistic auditory stream segregation processes important for speech-in-noise processing. However, little is known about the relationship between performance on SFG tasks and speech-in-noise tasks nor the individual differences that may modulate such relationships. In this study, 37 younger normal-hearing adults performed an SFG task with target figure chords consisting of four, six, eight, or ten temporally coherent tones amongst a background of randomly varying tones. Stimuli were designed to be spectrally and temporally flat. An increased number of temporally coherent tones resulted in higher accuracy and faster reaction times (RTs). For ten target tones, faster RTs were associated with better scores on the Quick Speech-in-Noise task. Individual differences in working memory capacity and self-reported musicianship further modulated these relationships. Overall, results demonstrate that the SFG task could serve as an assessment of auditory stream segregation accuracy and RT that is sensitive to individual differences in cognitive and auditory abilities, even among younger normal-hearing adults.

Prominent sociolinguistic theories of language mixing have posited that single-word insertions of one language into the other are the result of a distinct process than multi-word alternations between two languages given that the former overwhelmingly surface morphosyntactically integrated into the surrounding language. To date, this distinction has not been tested in comprehension. The present study makes use of pupillometry to examine the online processing of single-word insertions and multi-word alternations by highly proficient Spanish-English bilinguals in Puerto Rico. Participants heard sentences containing target noun/adjective pairs (1) in unilingual Spanish, (2) where the Spanish noun was replaced with its English translation equivalent, followed by a Spanish post-nominal adjective, and (3) where both the noun and adjective appeared in English with the adjective occurring in the English pre-nominal position. Both types of language mixing elicit larger pupillary responses when compared to unilingual Spanish speech, though the magnitude of this difference depends on the grammatical gender of the target noun. Importantly, single-word insertions and multi-word alternations did not differ from one another. Taken together, these findings suggest that morphosyntactic integration is not the defining feature of single-word insertions, at least in comprehension, and that the comprehension system is tuned to the distributional properties of bilingual speech.

Traditionally, it has been claimed that the non-canonical word order of passives makes them inherently more difficult to comprehend than their canonical active counterparts both in the first (L1) and second language (L2). However, growing evidence suggests that non-canonical word orders are not inherently more difficult to process than canonical counterparts when presented with discourse contexts that license their information structure constraints. In an eye-tracking experiment, we investigated the effect of information structure on the online processing of active and passive constructions and whether this effect differed in monolinguals and L1-Spanish–L2-English speakers. In line with previous corpus studies, our results indicated that there was an interaction between word order and information structure according to which passive sentences were much more costly to process with new–given information structure patterns. Crucially, we failed to find evidence that the effect of information structure on word order constraints in comprehension differed between monolingual and L2 speakers.

A common practice often attested in bilingual and multilingual communities the world over is the combination of languages within a single utterance or conversation, a practice known as codeswitching. While sociolinguistic studies of spontaneous codeswitching have demonstrated its structure and systematicity, psycholinguistic approaches have focused on the cognitive mechanisms underlying language switching, most often at the lexical level. In the present study, we seek to investigate these mechanisms using spontaneous codeswitching from an established community of Spanish-English bilinguals in northern New Mexico. Focusing on the clausal rather than the lexical level, we find that global speech rates are fastest when bilinguals codeswitch compared to speaking only one language at a time. These results point to codeswitching as a unique discourse mode that these bilinguals use to facilitate production and suggests that what may appear costly at one level may be beneficial at another.

AbstractThe transfer of words from one language to another is ubiquitous in many of the world’s languages. While loanwords have a rich literature in the fields of historical linguistics, language contact, and sociolinguistics, little work has been done examining how loanwords are processed by bilinguals with knowledge of both the source and recipient languages. The present study uses pupillometry to compare the online processing of established loanwords in Puerto Rican Spanish to native Spanish words by highly proficient Puerto Rican Spanish-English bilinguals. Established loanwords elicited a significantly larger pupillary response than native Spanish words, with the pupillary response modulated by both the frequency of the loanword itself and of the native Spanish counterpart. These findings suggest that established loanwords are processed differently than native Spanish words and compete with their native equivalents, potentially due to both intra- and inter-lingual effects of saliency.

AbstractMost studies on lexical priming have examined single words presented in isolation, despite language users rarely encountering words in such cases. The present study builds upon this by examining both within-language identity priming and across-language translation priming in sentential contexts. Highly proficient Spanish–English bilinguals read sentence-question pairs, where the sentence contained the prime and the question contained the target. At earlier stages of processing, we find evidence only of within-language identity priming; at later stages of processing, however, across-language translation priming surfaces, and becomes as strong as within-language identity priming. Increasing the time between the prime sentence and target question results in strengthened priming at the latest stages of processing. These results replicate previous findings at the single-word level but do so within sentential contexts, which has implications both for accounts of priming via automatic spreading activation as well as for accounts of persistence attested in spontaneous speech corpora.