Despite growing calls to foster AI literacy, there are few available survey instruments designed for children and youth that study computational empowerment alongside construction and deconstruction activities. In such activities, learners' beliefs about their abilities and attributes can impact their engagement. In this paper, we introduce and validate a survey instrument with constructs related to construction (creative expression and problem-solving self-beliefs) and deconstruction (auditing self-efficacy and fascination with auditing), along with more general self-beliefs related to design justice and the value of learning about AI/ML. We administered the instrument to 124 teenagers and assessed the six-factor structure of the instrument using confirmatory factor analysis. In addition to confirming the structure, we found that design justice beliefs strongly correlated with problem-solving, auditing self-efficacy, and creative expression.

Background and Context: Few instruments exist to measure students' CS engagement and learning especially in areas where coding happens with creative, project-based learning and in regard to students' self-beliefs about computing. Objective: We introduce the CS Interests and Beliefs Inventory (CSIBI), an instrument designed for novice secondary students learning by designing projects (particularly with physical computing). The inventory contains subscales on beliefs on problem solving competency, fascination in design, value of CS, creative expression, and beliefs about context-specific CS abilities alongside programming mindsets and outcomes. We explain the creation of the instrument and attend to the role of mindsets as mediators of self-beliefs and how CSIBI may be adapted to other K-12 project-based learning settings. Method: We administered the instrument to 303 novice CS secondary students who largely came from historically marginalized backgrounds (gender, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status). We assessed the nine-factor structure for the 32-item instrument using confirmatory factor analysis and tested the hypothesized model of mindsets as mediators with structural equation modeling. Findings: We confirmed the nine factor structure of CSIBI and found significant positive correlations across factors. The structural model results showed that problem solving competency beliefs and CS creative expression promoted programming growth mindset, which subsequently fostered students' programming self-concept. Implications: We validated an instrument to measure secondary students' self-beliefs in CS that fills several gaps in K-12 CS measurement tools by focusing on contexts of learning by designing. CSIBI can be easily adapted to other learning by designing computing education contexts.

Debugging, finding and fixing bugs in code, is a heterogeneous process that shapes novice learners' self-beliefs and motivation in computing. Our Debugging by Design intervention (DbD) provocatively puts students in control over bugs by having them collaborate on designing creative buggy projects during an electronic textiles unit in an introductory computing course. We implemented DbD virtually in eight classrooms with two teachers in public schools with historically marginalized populations, using a quasi-experimental design. Data from this study included post-activity results from a validated survey instrument (N=144). For all students, project completion correlated with increased computer science creative expression and e-textiles coding self-efficacy. In the comparison classes, project completion correlated with reduced programming anxiety, problem-solving competency beliefs, and programming self-concept. In DbD classes, project completion is uniquely correlated with increased fascination with design and programming growth mindset. In the discussion, we consider the relative benefits of DbD versus other open-ended projects.

In this paper, we share the design of a virtual epidemic with recognizable similarities to the real-life COVID-19 pandemic in order to engage children and youth in seeking information about the outbreak and practicing usage of personal protection equipment. In our research we sought to create a safe space in the virtual world, Whyville, for youth to "play" with serious topics of infection, asymptomatic disease transmission, prevention measures, and research and reporting of public health information. We examined the logfiles of 1,022 youth aged 10-18 years (mean = 13.7 years) who participated in an outbreak of a virtual virus, SPIKEY-20, in October and November 2020. Analyzing log files, we found that player engagement in productive infectious disease practices increased, including information seeking as well as purchases and usage of personal protective equipment during the virtual epidemic. In the discussion, we address the potential for virtual epidemics to provide a safe, playful space to practice and learn how to productively confront infectious disease and build promising connections between virtual and real-life epidemics.

Many efforts of curricula design have concentrated on expanding participation in K-12 CS education by introducing innovative approaches but few have focused on addressing longstanding equity issues through their choices of culturally relevant materials and activities. In this paper, we describe our efforts in using electronic textiles which include Arduino-based microcontrollers that are sewn with conductive thread on fabrics to connect actuators and sensors and create interactive wearables. We report on the implementation of an electronic textiles curricular unit in the Exploring Computer Science introductory computing course in 13 high schools involving 272 high school students largely from underrepresented groups in a major metropolitan school district. We examined two issues relevant to broadening equitable participation in CS: (1) students' changed perceptions of computing, and (2) students' depth of learning of computing, circuitry and crafting in the final project. Pre/post surveys on students' perceptions of computing showed positive, significant gains in students' self-confidence in solving CS problems, fascination with computing and ability to be creative with computing. Teacher evaluations of students' final projects revealed robust learning in the areas of basic programming and computational circuitry as well as strong learning across more challenging computational concepts, with room for growth. We discuss factors that impacted student outcomes and outline steps for further analysis.

In this paper, we report on the study of a new virtual epidemic called the Dragon Swooping Cough, a newly designed virus unleashed on the youth virtual world of Whyville.net in two stages during December 2015 and April 2016. Our overall goal in this study was to design experiential learning of infectious disease in a safe but epidemiologically and educationally sound way. The virtual virus targeted personal, social, and economic aspects of online life in Whyville in order to mirror real-world viruses and to trigger player emotions. Our analysis of pre/post surveys and online behavior log files for survey (N = 747) and non-survey (N = 3348) participants revealed that the virtual epidemic promoted participation, primarily through engagement in prevention against the virtual virus, that increased in the second outbreak. Furthermore, emotional engagement played an intriguing role in both behavioral and information-seeking behaviors. In the discussion we address what we learned about opportunities and challenges in designing a virtual epidemic for educational engagement.

Most research in primary and secondary computing education has focused on understanding learners within formal classroom communities, leaving aside the growing number of promising informal online programming communities where young users contribute, comment, and collaborate on programs to facilitate learning. In this article, we examined trends in computational participation in Scratch, an online community with over 1 million registered youth designers. Drawing on a random sample of 5,004 youth programmers and their activities over 3 months in early 2012, we examined programming concepts used in projects in relation to level of participation, gender, and length of membership of Scratch programmers. Latent class analysis results identified the same four groups of programmers in each month based on the usage of different programming concepts and showed how membership in these groups shifted in different ways across time. Strikingly, the largest group of project creators (named Loops) used the simplest and fewest programming concepts. Further, this group was the most stable in membership and was disproportionately female. In contrast, the more complex programming groups (named Variables, Low Booleans, and High Booleans) showed much movement across time. Further, the Low Booleans and High Booleans groups, the only groups to use “and,” “or,” and “not” statements in their programs, were disproportionately male. In the discussion, we address the challenges of analyzing young learners’ programming in informal online communities and opportunities for designing more equitable computational participation.

How can we design for more active participation and engagement in massive online virtual worlds? While many online communities, be they online games or virtual worlds, have been created or used ostensibly with learning goals in mind, relatively little has been studied about how to motivate members collectively (rather than individually or in small groups) in productive activities, especially with children and teens. To this end we describe the design and impact of a virtual epidemic in a massive online community called Whyville.net that engaged youth players in an infectious disease outbreak. Our analyses of click data captured in log files and observations reveal which factors impacted players' changes in participation, including searches for information, engagement in prevention, and donations to vaccine design. In the discussion, we address what we have learned about identity, agency and timing as levers in designing participation in massive community experiences.

While massive online communities have drawn the attention of researchers and educators on their potential to support active collaborative work, knowledge sharing, and user-generated content, few studies examine participation in these communities at scale. The little research that does exist attends almost solely to adults rather than communities to support youths’ learning and identity development. In this chapter, we tackle two challenges related to understanding social practices that support learning in massive social networking forums where users engage in design. We examined a youth programmer community, called Scratch.mit.edu, that garners the voluntary participation of millions of young people worldwide. We report on site-wide distributions and patterns of participation that illuminate the relevance of different online social practices to ongoing involvement in the online community. Drawing on a random sample of more than 5000 active users of Scratch.mit.edu over a 3-month time period in early 2012, we examine log files that captured the frequency of three types of social practices that contribute to enduring participation: DIY participatory activities, socially supportive actions, and socially engaging interactions. Using latent transition analysis, we found (1) distinct patterns of participation (classes) across three time points (e.g., high networkers who are generally active, commenters who focus mainly on social participation, downloaders engaging in DIY participatory activities), (2) unique migration changes in class membership across time, (3) relatively equal gender representation across these classes, and (4) importance of membership length (or age) in terms of class memberships. In the discussion, we review our approach to analysis and outline implications for the design and study of online communities and tools for youth.

Most research in primary and secondary computing education has focused on understanding learners within formal classroom communities, leaving aside the growing number of promising informal online programming communities where young learners contribute, comment, and collaborate on programs. In this paper, we examined trends in computational participation in Scratch, an online community with over 1 million registered youth designers primarily 11-18 years of age. Drawing on a random sample of 5,000 youth programmers and their activities over three months in early 2012, we examined the quantity of programming concepts used in projects in relation to level of participation, gender, and account age of Scratch programmers. Latent class analyses revealed four unique groups of programmers. While there was no significant link between level of online participation, ranging from low to high, and level of programming sophistication, the exception was a small group of highly engaged users who were most likely to use more complex programming concepts. Groups who only used few of the more sophisticated programming concepts, such as Booleans, variables and operators, were identified as Scratch users new to the site and girls. In the discussion we address the challenges of analyzing young learners' programming in informal online communities and opportunities for designing more equitable computational participation.

Most research in massive online youth communities has focused on understanding patterns of participation and collaboration in games, social networks, and virtual worlds. Few studies have examined the nature and dynamics in amateur design communities where youth contribute content they have designed themselves. In this paper, we examine quantitative trends of participation in a youth design site focused on programming. Scratch is an online community with over 1 million registered youth designers 11-18 years of age. Drawing on a random sample of 5,000 youth programmers and their activities over three months in early 2012, we examined log files that captured the frequency of their contributions and comments on the site, making visible distinct classes of users who engaged in different sets of practices that support design on a collective scale. In the discussion we discuss implications for the design of collaborative spaces, tools, and communities.

Little is known about how girl players navigate through virtual worlds, negotiate their identity, and challenge cultural norms and practices. We investigated over 500 players in a science-themed tween virtual world called Whyville.net with girls being the majority (68%) of its 1.5 million registered players. Using logfile data collected over a six-month long period, we identified three distinct groups: core gamers (7% of all players), semi-core gamers (34% of players), and peripheral gamers (59% of players). We found that all groups participated in common practices but that core players also participated in non-traditional, transgressive practices. These included private flirting with other players and aggressive scamming of others for personal profit as well as public denials of such activities because they violated gender and social norms. Often hidden, these facets of girls’ play indicate the value of virtual worlds as digital publics that offer youth opportunities to engage in identity exploration and border crossing.

Purpose To examine associations between individual and vicarious racial discrimination via the Internet and psychological adjustment. Methods This study was a cross-sectional survey using a school-based sample of adolescents. Two hundred sixty-four high school students aged 14-18 completed the online survey. Results Twenty percent of whites, 29% of African Americans and 42% of multiracials/other experienced individual discrimination and approximately 71% of African Americans and whites and 67% of multiracials witnessed discrimination experienced by same-race and cross-race peers. Hierarchical linear regressions revealed that individual racial discrimination was significantly related to depression and anxiety over and above offline measures. Vicarious discrimination was not related to psychological adjustment measures. Conclusions Adolescents frequently experienced both individual and vicarious discrimination online. Consistent with offline studies, online racial discrimination was negatively associated with psychological functioning. This study highlights the need to address racial issues in Internet safety prevention.

The relationship among adolescents' (N = 228) ethnic identity, outgroup orientation, and online intergroup experiences was examined across three groups: European Americans, ethnic minorities (i. e., Latino and African Americans), and multiracials. Similar to previous studies, ethnic minorities reported significantly higher ethnic identity than European Americans and multiracials. Although outgroup orientation did not differ among ethnic groups, European Americans reported that they had more online intergroup contact than the other ethnic groups; greater intergroup contact was also related to higher outgroup orientation for this group. These results show that ethnic identity remains stronger for ethnic minorities, but intergroup interaction has become a salient and influential aspect of the online experience for European Americans. Implications are drawn for understanding and improving online and offline intergroup relations.

This study used latent class analysis (LCA) to identify and classify individuals into aggressor and victim latent classes. Participants were over 2,000 sixth grade students who completed peer nomination procedures that identified students who had reputations as perpetrators and/or victims of physical, verbal, or relational harassment. Results showed five latent classes. Consistent with previous research, LCA identified latent classes of victims, aggressors, and socially adjusted students. However, rather than a single aggressive-victim subgroup, LCA identified latent classes of highly-victimized aggressive-victims and highly-aggressive aggressive-victims. Comparisons showed differences in mean profiles and classification criteria between LCA and traditional dichotomization approaches. Adjustment outcomes showed that highly-victimized aggressive-victims generally experienced greater negative psychological and social adjustment outcomes than highly-aggressive aggressive-victims. Implications of these findings for better assessment of victim and aggressor subgroups were discussed.

Due to increased migration, many nations are increasingly characterized as multiracial/multicultural societies. Maximizing the conditions under which such societies achieve stability and harmony among various racial and cultural groups has become an important issue (see United Nations Development Programme, 2004). The present paper draws on concepts from cultural and social psychology to provide a theoretical perspective and empirical data concerning intergroup attitudes. The data are drawn from high school students in Los Angeles, a region of the U.S. that has long been a destination for people of many races, nationalities of origin, and cultural groups.