on the control of substances toxic to aquatic and human life. This differed drastically from the CWA which was primarily concerned with maintaining a minimum dissolved oxygen level in re- ceiving waters. The WQA was exten- sive and the United States Environ- mental Protection Agency (EPA) was charged with implementing guidelines for state and local regulatory agencies to follow. EPA, pursuant to its authority under Section 304(a) of the Clean Water Act, has published water quality criteria to help develop permit conditions for toxic pollutants. These criteria are intended for national application but may be re- placed, when appropriate by site spe- cific criteria. The guidance document, EPA Quali- ty Criteria for Water issued in 1987 by EPA, significantly altered the permit writing process.1 The NPDES permitting system originally introduced in 1972 still remains as the method for control of discharges. The 1987 document identified 129 chemical constituents to be monitored where previously there had been only approximately 30. In ad- dition, thus document specified detec- tion limits, test methods to be used and utilized stream models for the de- termination of discharge limits. tion, approximately 30 to 50% of the dischargers will need to install alternate processes (i.e. reverse osmosis and ton exchange) to meet the new limitations."

acids, an aminosugar,urea,andtraceelements (Sigma Chemical Co.,St.Louis, Mo.)was formulated. Allthe components were addedtosterile 20mM potassium phos- phate buffer (pH7.8to8.0) toa final volumeof100mland filtered through a 0.20-i±m disposable filter apparatus (Nalgene LabwareDiv., Nalge/Sybron Corp., Rochester, N.Y.). Thefiltered mediumwas dispensed in0.5-ml quanti- ties intosterile tubes andfrozen at-70°Cuntil needed. Eachclostridial isolate was inoculated intothedefined chemical mediumwitha sterile swab.Theinoculum was adjusted tocorrespond approximately totheturbidity ofa McFarland no.10standard andincubated aerobically for1h at35°C. Thedefined mediumwas thencentrifuged toremove bacterial cells, andthesupernatant fluids were placed on ice tostopfurther enzymatic reactions. Ifspecimens could not FABLE1.Defined chemical medium

Colonie metabolism may be affected by dietary fiber and short-chain fatty acids, the products of fiber fermentation. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of fiber supplementation (150 g/ kg diet) on dynamic measurements of metabolism in isolated rat colonie epithelial cells. Additionally, we in vestigated the effect of in vitro short-chain fatty acid and glutamine concentrations and media osmolarity on oxygen uptake, protein synthesis, cell proliferation and anaplerotic flux. Colonocyte oxygen consumption did not differ due to fiber supplementation or the inclu sion of short-chain fatty acids in incubation media. Cell proliferation ( 'H-thymidine uptake) was increased by fiber consumption (P < 0.05) but was decreased by supplementing short-chain fatty acids in vitro (P £ 0.05), independent of osmolarity. Protein synthesis (3H-phenylalanine incorporation) was unaffected by fiber supplementation but was decreased when short- chain fatty acids were present in incubation media (P < 0.05). However, this decrease was also induced by in vitro supplementation with isoosmotic NaCl concen trations. These data show that although fiber supple mentation increases in vitro colonocyte proliferation, the unchanged oxygen uptake rate indicates that there was no concurrent increase in energy expenditure. J. Nutr. 126: 1429-1437, 1996.

This study examined the relationship between the types of school board decisions and the duration of time spent on these decisions. The source of information for this study was electronically recorded minutes of selected West Virginia school board meetings during the time period of August 1990 to August 1995 and the types and frequencies of decisions identified by the Hange and Leary study (1996) of written minutes from the same period. The duration of time spent on each decision type was determined by reviewing videotapes or audio tapes of meetings that corresponded to the selected written minutes from the 22 West Virginia counties where the recordings were available. Contrary to a majority of the literature that suggested that the major priority of effective school boards should be policymaking, the results of this study indicated the local school boards in West Virginia generally do not follow this advice. An average of only 3% of the school board meetings studied were dedicated to policymaking. The largest single percentage of time was typically spent in executive session. Policy and curricular issues accounted for 5% of the time spent in school board meetings, while other issues dominated 79% of the meeting time (16% was expended on non-coded activities).

The shrub-steppe is on the edge of destruction. The shrub-steppe has been dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and bunchgrasses, but continued disturbance has led to severe reductions in the native flora and increases in invasive species. Bromus tectorum (cheatgrass), an invasive annual grass, is turning this ecosystem into a high frequency fire disclimax. Fire leads to the loss of perennial natives and increases in early successional annual species, which, unfortunately, increases fire risk. Restoration is required to reverse this trend. How can we make headway against cheatgrass without breaking the bank? This is the key to current research in shrub-steppe restoration. We present an overview of invasive species, fire, native species used in restoration, strategies that have been used to restore the shrub-steppe, and some case studies. While cheatgrass is considered the worst invasive species in the shrub-steppe, others are becoming significant. These include the knapweeds (Centaurea spp.), tumblemustard (Sisymbrium altissimum), and Taeniatherum caput-medusae (Medusahead) in upland areas. In riparian areas, Elaeagnus angustifolia (Russian olive) and Lepidium latifolium (perennial pepperweed) are difficult to control. Many native species are used in shrub-steppe restoration. These generally, are becoming easier to obtain. Site-specific ecotypes are harder to obtain, but often required for successful restoration. Large bunchgrasses can be used as key species as they can out compete cheatgrass and create conditions that allow other native perennials to establish. This is the least expensive route to successful restoration in the shrub-steppe. Chemicals are often needed to help bunchgrasses establish from seed when cheatgrass is the competitor. Restoration experiments to determine the minimum amount of herbicide required for establishment of drill- seeded bunchgrasses are highlighted as a case study.