Lake Skadar is the largest freshwater body on the Balkan Peninsula. It is recognized as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention and holds the status of a national park in Montenegro. The results presented in this study indicate a significant downward trend in monthly water levels during the period 1948-2021, ranging from -14.9 cm in September to -24.0 cm per decade in May. Water levels show significant variation both seasonally and annually (cm per decade): from -16.8 (autumn) to -21.7 (spring), i.e., -19.3 (year). Standardized deviations suggest that the most pronounced decline began in 1981, a pattern further confirmed by the Rescaled Adjusted Partial Sums. Total precipitation in Lake Skadar's drainage basin has shown little to no change. However, there has been a significant increase in air temperature, and thus increased evaporation. According to ERA5-Land data, the annual total evaporation trend in the lake basin reaches up to 10.0 mm per decade. The substantial increase in evaporation has probably resulted in a significant reduction in runoff (Y) derived from precipitation contributing to stream flow. The trend of the mean annual runoff (Y) from 1 m2 is -45 mm per decade, and the flow of the Morača River, the main tributary of the lake, -2.5% per decade. Notably, over the past 14 years, Lake Skadar recorded both its highest water level (2010) and its lowest (2017). We appreciate that the long-term trend of falling water levels is influenced by significant warming of the atmosphere, which has led to increased water evaporation. Short-term fluctuations in lake water levels are primarily driven by variations in precipitation within the catchment area, which are likely linked to atmospheric oscillation patterns. In addition, human impact is evident near the confluence of the Morača River and Lake Skadar, particularly due to the intensive extraction of gravel and sand. To preserve the ecology and economy of Lake Skadar, its natural and cultural heritage, urgent measures are necessary by the countries (Montenegro and Albania) within whose territories this natural gem is located.

Due to the invaluable importance of the Morača River and its tributary the Zeta River for Montenegro, the aim of the study is to investigate changes in river flow based on data from 4 hydrological stations (HS) for the period 1961–2020, and to determine the influence of variations in atmospheric and oceanic oscillations on the hydroclimate (flow, air temperature and precipitation) of the observed area. Temperature and precipitation were considered based on data from 4 meteorological stations in the basin. All HS record a significant trend of decreasing monthly flows from April to August: ranging from – 4.1

One of the models for differentiating climates in each area is the Thornthwaite Climate Classification (TCC). To analyze climate changes in Montenegro, using the criteria underlying the TCC, this study aims to classify the country’s climate across two standard climatic periods: 1961-1990 and 1991-2020. Using the Thornthwaite Moisture Index (PE), a bioclimatic delineation of regions with varying degrees of moisture in Montenegro was first conducted for the entire period (1961-2020), and subsequently for the two aforementioned subperiods (1961-1990 and 1991-2020). The study utilized air temperature and precipitation data from 18 meteorological stations (MS). All calculations were performed on a monthly basis using the PAST 4.13 software package, while the maps were created using QGIS 2.8.1. For mathematical modeling of the cartographic representation of the Thornthwaite climate classification, the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) geostatistical interpolation method was applied. The results, spanning a 60-year period, indicate that the Thornthwaite Moisture Index (PE) values range from 631.5 (MS Crkvice), corresponding to a humid (A) climate, to 95 (MS Pljevlja), indicating a humid (B) climate. The majority of meteorological stations in Montenegro exhibit values of this index that classify them within the A climate. The average RE value across the 18 meteorological stations for the 60-year period is 198.3, indicating that Montenegro’s climate was generally humid overall. Based on PE values, the lowest effects were observed at stations in the northern and northeastern regions of Montenegro, as well as in the far southeast, while the highest effects were recorded at stations in the southwestern and western parts of the country. This can be linked to the spatial distribution and precipitation patterns across Montenegro’s territory. The bioclimatic classification based on PE for the two subperiods reveals certain climate changes in Montenegro. Specifically, the A climate was represented at 66.7% of meteorological stations during the first period (1961-1990) and at 61.1% during the second period (1991-2020). Conversely, the B climate was represented at 33.3% of stations in the first period and at 38.9% in the second, indicating a slight aridification of the climate in the latter subperiod. Sub-humid (S), semi-arid (D), and arid (E) climates were not observed at any of the meteorological stations included in the analysis.

The fundamental idea of this research is to establish a connection between sediment transport data in the Kolubara River basin (Beli Brod profile) and the width of tree rings of silver fir (Abies alba) from Mount Bokšanica (1985-2004), utilizing dendrochronological methods. The goal is to link these two variables and associate geomorphological and climatological processes, assuming that precipitation plays a key role. This, in turn, opens up the possibility of reconstructing the geomorphological process of mechanical water erosion, i.e., sediment transport, provided that older tree ring samples are found. The study focuses on the aspects of contemporary climate change, considering precipitation as one of the primary climatic factors influencing the growth of wood mass, i.e., the width of tree rings, and river flow, i.e., sediment transport. Calculations were conducted for a twenty-year period from 1985 to 2004. The data pertains to the total sediment transport in the Kolubara River basin (Beli Brod profile) and the width of tree rings in fi r trees (silver fi r on Mount Bokšanica). The highest sediment transport was recorded in 1999 (304,516.9 tons), coinciding with the widest silver fi r tree rings on Mount Bokšanica - 4.4 mm. A statistically significant correlation at a 0.05% probability of risk acceptance was established, concluding that there is a linear relationship in the primary dataset with a 5% risk. When considering moving pentad values, there is a statistically significant correlation between both datasets and the dataset from which the biological trend was removed using the ARMA method (p = 0.01%). There is a concurrence of maximum values in both sets of moving pentads at the point of 1995, along with a high degree of autocorrelation. The initial hypothesis of this study is proven as there is spatial-temporal variability in these variables, which is a result of the impact of contemporary climate change.

ABSTRACT After 2000, Montenegro has been hit by several severe droughts. The results presented in this study were based on the analysis of the standardized precipitation index (SPI) and the standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index (SPEI) for the period 1961–2020. They showed the prevalence of a negative trend in both indices and a significantly higher frequency of drought in the second half of the observed period (1991–2020). The SPEI index is a more representative indicator of drought, because in addition to precipitation, it also takes into account potential evapotranspiration. Using the rescaled adjusted partial sums (RAPS) method, it was determined that the tipping point when the SPEI suddenly fell was the mid-1980s. Out of the 15 analyzed teleconnection variation indicators (atmospheric and oceanic oscillations), 11 oscillations have a significant impact on one or more of the 24 analyzed SPEI time series. The consequences of the drought in Montenegro, as part of the Mediterranean, are most noticeable in the summer, primarily in the form of water shortages, dried vegetation, and frequent fires. Decision-makers in Montenegro should pay attention to this extreme, as drought could pose a serious problem under the projected warmer climate conditions.

The main objective of this paper is to perform a bioclimatic delineation of regions with varying degrees of humidity in Montenegro using the Thornthwaite Moisture Index. A dataset spanning 60 years (1961–2020) was utilized, comprising air temperature and precipitation sums from 18 meteorological stations (MS). The homogeneity of the data was examined using the methods MASH v3.02 and MISH v1.02. For determining the climatic classification categories, the 60-year period (1961–2020) was divided into two standard climatic sub-periods: 1961–1990 and 1991–2020, to detect any changes in the spatial distribution of climates. The analysis was conducted on a multi-year monthly level. Calculations were performed using the software package PAST 4.13, and maps were drawn using QGIS 2.8.1. For the mathematical modeling of the cartographic representation of Thornthwaite’s climatic classification, the Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) geostatistical interpolation method was used. The hythergraph method was used for graphical representation of stations as typical representatives of climates in the Thornthwaite classification system. The results obtained for the 60-year period indicate that the Thornthwaite Moisture Index (PE) has values ranging from 631.5 (MS Crkvica), indicating a humid (A) climate with forest and persistent rain, to 95 (MS Pljevlja), indicating a humid (B) climate with forest vegetation. The majority of MS in Montenegro show values of this index that classify them into a humid (A) climate. The average value of the Thornthwaite Moisture Index (PE) at 18 MS for the 60-year period is 198.3, indicating that the climate of Montenegro during this period was humid with forest and persistent rain. According to the Thornthwaite Moisture Index (PE), the lowest effects were detected at stations in the north and northeast of Montenegro (MS Pljevlja, MS Berane, MS Bijelo Polje, MS Rožaje, and MS Plav), as well as at MS Ulcinj and MS Bar, while the highest effects were recorded at stations in the southwest and west of the territory. This can be related to the spatial distribution and precipitation regime in Montenegro. For each MS, Thornthwaite’s climatic formula was determined for the 60-year and two 30-year sub-periods, with changes in the climatic formula between the observed periods specifically marked.

ourism in Montenegro represents a vital component of the national economy, contributing significantly to its gross domestic product (GDP). Recognized as one of the key sectors, this country on the Adriatic Sea annually attracts millions of tourists from various parts of the world. Thanks to its unique combination of natural beauty, cultural heritage, and favorable climate, Montenegro has established itself as a popular destination for various types of tourism. Statistical data shows that the number of tourists in Montenegro has been steadily increasing over the past decades. Particularly significant growth has been recorded in the international tourism segment. The majority of tourists come from European countries, with a special emphasis on visitors from Russia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and European Union countries. The diversity of offerings, from sunny beaches to mountain resorts, attracts various groups of tourists, significantly extending the tourist season. Since 1980, OECD experts have set up a strategic development matrix for Montenegro with three main pillars: tourism (today they would likely add sustainable tourism), predominantly rural and interconnected agriculture (today we might add organic food production), and industry, particularly small businesses catering to tourism and local needs (today they might include clean industry organized by Small and Medium-sized Enterprises—SMEs). We believe these are three robust strategic pillars interconnected by tourism, which should be Montenegro’s strategic development priority. In Montenegro, in 2021, there were 1,670,879 tourist arrivals and 9,872,573 overnight stays. Comparing these figures to 2019, there was a decrease of 36.8% in tourist arrivals and 31.7% in overnight stays. In comparison to 2020, which was significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic, in 2021 there was an increase of 276.3% in tourist arrivals and 281.6% in overnight stays. It can be noted that there was a noticeable recovery in the tourism sector in 2021; however, this recovery did not reach the levels of 2019. Estimates suggest that tourism will contribute around one billion euros to the gross domestic product in 2022, so the “gray zone” should be sought between actual revenue and estimated contributions. Essential to this is the quality reconstruction and development of basic accommodation capacities, additional tourist superstructure and infrastructure, and market repositioning towards major tourist sources in Europe. Achieving better results in the tourism sector requires diversification of products and services.

The population by nationality in Montenegro cannot be tracked in the first half of the 20th century, specifically until the census conducted after World War II. In the censuses of 1921 and 1931, the population was not categorized by nationality, but only by religion, language, and similar characteristics. Additionally, for comparing the population by national groups, the 1961 Census is the most suitable starting point, as it allows tracking the most numerous national groups according to the 2011 Census of population, households, and dwellings. For example, according to the 1953 Census, almost 2% of Montenegro’s population identified as Yugoslavs, while there were no inhabitants who identified as Muslims, a significant national group in Montenegro that began to officially declare themselves as such starting from 1961. The 2011 Census in Montenegro revealed a population of approximately 625,000 people, with 45% identifying as Montenegrins, 28% as Serbs, about 9% as Bosnians, 5% as Albanians, and 1% as Croats. The results indicate that the Montenegrin population is growing, while the number of Serbs has decreased. The largest group is Montenegrins at 45%, while Serbs make up 29%, showing an increase of 2% in those identifying as Montenegrins and a decrease of over 3% in those identifying as Serbs compared to the 2003 census. The proportion of Serbs in Montenegro increased significantly from 3.3% in 1981 to nearly 33% in 2003. In 2011, slightly under 43% of Montenegrin citizens spoke Serbian, whereas nearly 37% spoke Montenegrin. This reflects a 20% decrease in the proportion of citizens listing Serbian as their mother tongue since 2003, alongside a corresponding increase in those speaking Montenegrin. Despite this trend, 6% more citizens still speak Serbian. The 2023 census results show that 38% of the population identifies as Serbs, and around 52% speak Serbian as their mother tongue. This is a significantly higher percentage compared to the 2011 census. On the other hand, it suggests that the number of those identifying as Montenegrins decreased compared to the 2011 data when 43% of the citizens identified as Montenegrins. By religion, Montenegrin citizens are divided into: 72% Orthodox, 19% Muslim, and 3.5% Catholic. The remaining and atheist individuals each make up a little over one percent.

Lake Skadar on the Balkan Peninsula faces many ecological challenges. The lake is located in the border area between Mon-tenegro and Albania and its ecosystem interacts with important and highly populated urban centres such as Podgorica and Bar. Despite the crucial role the lake plays in the sustainability of the ecosystem and the health of the population, there is a lack of environmental quality assessment and data-based analysis. Therefore, the aim of this study is to assess both the wa-ter quality of Lake Skadar and the air pollution in Podgorica and Bar in the period from 2011 to 2018. To assess water qual-ity, the Water Quality Index (WQI) model, i.e. the SWQI method, was used, which was calculated based on 10 parameters of physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of water from 9 hydrological stations (oxygen saturation, biochemical oxygen consumption for 5 days, ammonium ions, pH, total nitrogen oxides, orthophosphates, suspended solids, tempera-ture, electrical conductivity and coliform bacteria). In addition, air quality in the two cities was assessed using timeseries of PM10 concentrations. The results showed that the water quality of Lake Skadar was of good to high quality (WQI 79-95), while the air quality in Podgorica and Bar was a serious public health problem, especially in the cold seasons in Podgorica (i.e. the average seasonal and daily PM10 concentrations were often > 40 and > 50 µg/m3). These results are of great practi-cal importance for environmental management and support decision makers in applying certain environmental protection measures and strategies.

The opinion that blood revenge was definitively eradicated in Montenegro during Danilo's time ran into very serious difficulties and could not be maintained. Its serious traces, although not in the classic form, are encountered not only in the 19th but also in the 20th century. By 1870, Danilo's code was in full force, and since then 40 of its "articles" have remained in force.

The paper analyses the changes in insolation in Montenegro from 1961 to 2018. Data from 8 main meteorological stations were used where the homogeneity of time series was examined using MASH v3.0 methods. Calculations were made on a monthly, seasonal, and annual basis. During the period 1961–2018, there was a trend of increasing duration of sunshine for 5, and decreasing for 3 stations. We need to adapt to current climate change, and the primary way to mitigate further anthropogenic temperature rises is to reduce the use of fossil fuels and switch to clean energy sources. The results for Montenegro show that insolation is high (most of the country has an annual average of 2200–2600 h) and quite stable. Therefore the Mediterranean region has good potential for the development of solar energy, in general. This is supported by the fact that the period after 1990 (1991–2018) in most parts of Montenegro is sunnier than the period 1961–1990.

The purpose of this study is to determine the frequency trend of daily temperature and precipitation extremes in Montenegro. Firstly, using the Multiple Analysis of Series for Homogenization method (MASHv3.02), the accuracy of daily maximum and minimum temperatures, as well as daily precipitation, from 18 meteorological stations in Montenegro during 1961–2020, was examined. Using percentile distributions, one of the most objective methods in researching modern climate change, time series were formed for four temperature and four precipitation percentile indices on a seasonal and annual level. Finally, the trend was calculated using the Sen Method, while the significance was tested using the Mann–Kendall test. The obtained results demonstrate that there is a significant warming in Montenegro, because the number frequency trend of cold days and nights/warm days and nights decreases/increases (annually up to: −12.9, −18.4, 7.0 and 6.8 days/decade). The trend in the frequency of very wet, moderately wet, moderately dry and very dry days is insignificant, but indicates slight aridization. Significant warming increases water evaporation, which, with additional slight aridization, can pose a problem in the functioning of natural systems as well as in the life and work of the citizens.

In the last two decades, there has been no year in Montenegro in which some weather extreme has not been registered. The aim of this paper is to highlight the importance of an early announcement of potentially dangerous weather phenomena in the example of one case in Montenegro. The prognostic material including ocassionally storm surges, heavy rainfall and the occurrence of severe local instability in Montenegro on July 28, 2019 was considered. Based on the analysis of the synoptic material, the warning of the expected weather conditions was given two days before. The warnings of the competent institutions should be respected in order to adapt the population to the expected extreme weather situations and thus avoid or mitigate the negative consequences.

The aim of the study was to gather information necessary for the examination of the river Ćehotina water quality as well as the air pollution in the urban area of Pljevlja (far north of Montenegro), from 2011 until 2018. The water quality of the Ćehotina River was observed by the Water Quality Index (WQI) method, based on ten physicochemical and microbiological parameters from five hydrological stations. In order to examine the air quality, we used data on the concentration of the PM10 particles from the station located in the center of Pljevlja. The obtained results of river water quality indicate that the situation was disturbing (bad quality dominates). The results of the air quality analysis indicate that the situation has been alarming and Pljevlja itself as a “hot spot” of Montenegro. Annual, seasonal and daily mean concentrations of PM10 particles were above the prescribed limit values, except during summer. Sources of pollution were mostly known, and in order to protect public health, it is necessary to take appropriate measures as soon as possible, primarily the introduction of modern exhaust gas treatment technology TPP ‘‘Pljevlja’’ and construction of a heating plant that would replace numerous individual (home) fireplaces in Pljevlja.

Montenegro is a spatially and population-small Mediterranean country, which often faces extreme weather and climate events. Early announcement of an extreme weather event has great practical significance, because it can save people's lives and mitigate material damage. In November 2019, there were extreme weather events. During the previous 7 decades (instrumental period), it happened for the first time that one month was at the same time extremely warm and extremely rainy, and that was November 2019 in several cities.

 This paper deals with the temperature projections of two regonal climate models, actually three scenarios by 2100: the A2 scenario of the EBU-POM model and the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, the latest projections of the ALADIN model. Kolašin was chosen, because the altitude of the place is the average height of the northern region of Montenegro (about 1000 m). A total of 22 temperature parameters for the period 2011– 2100 were analyzed. The upward trend of projected seasonal and annual (TY, TYx, and TYn) mean, mean maximum, and mean minimum temperatures by 2100 is very significant. According to the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, in 2011-2100, the trend of projected mean winter (TW) temperatures will be from 0.2 to 0.37 °C per decade, and the trend of projected mean summer (TSu) temperatures will be from 0.24 to 0.54 °C per decade. Compared to the base period (1981–2010), the average annual temperature in 2071–2100 is expected to be higher than 2.2 (RCP4.5) to 3.6 °C (A2 and RCP8.5). Also, by the end of the 21st century, a significant increase in the number of summer and tropical days (SD and TD) together with a decrease in the number of frost and ice days (FD and ID) are expected. During the instrumental period, a temperature higher than 37 °C was not recorded. According to projections, in the late 21st century, in summer, maximum temperatures of 40 °C are possible, even in the milder variant (RCP4.5) scenario. According to projections of the used models, Kolašin and the northern region of Montenegro expect a warmer future with more frequent extreme temperatures in a positive direction. Key-words: temperature, projections, EBU-POM, ALADIN, scenarios A2, RCP4.5, RCP8.5, Kolašin, Montenegro

The aim of the research of this paper is changes in air temperature and precipitation in the north of Montenegro in the instrumental period (1951-2018) and projections up to 2100. Kolasin was chosen because the altitude of the place is the average height of the northern region of Montenegro (about 1000 m), the meteorological station has not changed its location since the beginning of instrumental measurements, and homogeneity was tested (for the instrumental period). In general, the climate of Kolasin (1951-2018) has become warmer and with more frequent extreme daily temperatures and precipitations in an upward trend. When it comes to the projections for the north of this Mediterranean country, according to the A1B scenario of the Regional Climate Model EBU?POM, the results indicate warmer conditions and very warm ones at the end of the 21st century. The projected reduction of the annual number of almost all the considered rainfall days also implies that a slightly more arid future is expected. The climate of the mountainous north of Montenegro is changing, and the results presented in this paper may serve decision makers to take some measures of adaptation (in tourism, agriculture, architecture, water management, etc.) and climate change mitigation.

The article presents the results of the analysis of several temperature and precipitation parameters in the instrumental period in the capital of Montenegro-Podgorica, for the period 1951-2018. In order to use the latest results of several Regional Climate Models (RCMs) developed for the Western Balkans, the results of temperature and precipitation modelling for the period 2011-2100, ALADIN, HIRHAM i RACMO models for RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 scenarios, are also presented. For the observed 68-year period (1951-2018), the trend calculations clearly show that the temperature is rising. This is indicated by all the analysed temperature parameters (TY, TW, TSp, TSu, TA, TYx, TYn, FD, ID, SU, TD, TR, T35+ and T40+). Although seasonal and annual precipitation totals do not show significant changes in the instrumental period, Podgorica's climate has become more arid and extreme, as the number of days with precipitation >= 1 mm (R1) has significantly decreased. Conversly, the number of days with precipitation has increased >= 40 and 50 mm (R40 and R50). The projected changes in the considered precipitation parameters are in most cases insignificant. The obtained results indicate that there is a high agreement between the temperatures projections of the three models used. Concerning precipitation, it appears that their modelling is more complex, because there are visible qualitative and quantitative differences in the projections of models of future changes in seasonal and annual sums (RY, RW, RSp, RSu and RA), that is, the number of precipitation days (R0.1, R1, R10, R20, R30, R40 and R50). The projections of the used models show that in the future we can expect a warmer climate with more extremes of temperature and precipitation in the grid area to which Podgorica belongs.

Članak prezentira načine obnove i revitalizacije spomenika kulture, oštećenih u potresu koji je pogodio Crnogorsko primorje 15. travnja 1979. godine. U radu je dan prikaz oštećenja i posljedica potresa, načini obnove i sanacije, te postupci revitalizacije koji su primijenjeni na oštećenim spomenicima kulture i povijesnim urbanim cjelinama. Cilj istraživanja je pokazati iskustva, načine i rezultate u procesu obnove i revitalizacije, kao i metodološke osnove rizika i zaštite spomenika kulture, koji se mogu primijeniti kao univerzalni princip nakon prirodnih katastrofa.